


EdvJard B Voof^heej 



s 

V35 



LIBRARY OF/CONGRESS. 

Chap..j5.... Copyright No. i 

Sheil__.:\/-3 5 

I . 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



FIRST PRINCIPLES 



OF 



AGRICULTURE, 



By 



EDWARD BvVoORHEES, A.M. 

Director of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, 

AND Professor of Agriculture in Rutgers College, 

New Brunswick, N.J. 




SILVER, BURDETT AND 'COMPANY. 

New Yobk. BOSTON. Chicago. 
1896. 



l^-^^^^iiz;^ 



Copyright, 1895, 
Bv Silver, Burdett and Company. 






4 



c\' 



C. J. Peters & Son, Tyi'OGkapiiers 



Berwick & Smith, Printers 



PREFACE. 



The purpose of this book is to state in logical order 
the elementary principles of scientific agriculture, and 
to show the relation of these scientific facts to farm 
practice. The need of such a book has been strongly 
felt by the author in his work as a teacher, not only of 
college students, but of those already engaged in farming. 

His experience, both as a practical farmer and as a 
teacher of the theory and application of agricultural 
science, leads him to believe that the principles and 
relations of scientific agriculture, if set forth clearly and 
in a scientific manner, can be successfully taught in our 
country district schools. It is here that such education 
must begin, if it is to reach and influence the mass of 
farmers, upon whom rests the chief burden of irrational 
practice, and through whom must come any direct pro- 
gress in the true development of the farming industry. 

In the preparation of the book no attempt has been 
made to cover the whole field of the various sciences 
in their relations to agriculture ; in many branches, only 
simple facts are stated, though it has been the aim to 
make the book scientific as far as it goes, and thus a 
safe guide to practical men in their farming operations, 
as well as a foundation upon which further study may 
be based. 

3 



4 PREFACE. 

The accomplishment of the work is due in no small 
degree to the endorsement of the plan by the New Jersey 
State Board of Agriculture and the New Jersey State 
Grange, as well as their hearty co-operation with, and 
cordial appreciation of, all genuine efforts made in behalf 
of agricultural education in the public schools of the 
State. 

E. B. Y. 
New Brunswick, N. J. 
Is'octmbtr, 1895. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER PAG K 

I. The Constituents of Plants 7 

II. Origin and Formation of Soils 18 

III. Composition of Soils 29 

IV. The Improvement of Soils 41 

V. Natural Manures 52 

YI. Artificial and Concentrated Manures ; Ni- 
trogenous Materials 68 

YII. Artificial and Concentrated Manures ; Phos- 
phates 80 

YIII. Artificial and Concentrated Manures ; Su- 
perphosphates AND Potash Salts .... 90 

IX. Artificial Manures or Fertilizers ; Methods 

OF Buying ; Valuation ; Formulas .... 101 

X. The Kotation of Crops 113 

XL The Selection of Seed ; Farm Crops and 
Their Classification ; Cereals ; Grasses ; 
Pastures ; Roots ; Tubers ; and Market- 
Garden Crops 122 

XII. The Growth of Animals ; The Constituents of 
Animals and Animal Food ; The Charac- 
ter AND Composition of Fodders and Feeds, 137 

5 



b CONTENTS, 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XIII. The Digestibility of Fodders and Feeds ; 
Feeding Standards ; Nutritive Ratio ; The 
Exchange of Farm Products for Concen- 
trated Feeds 154 

Xiy. Principles of Breeding ; The Pure Breeds of 

Farm Stock 170 

XY. The Products of the Dairy ; Their Character 

AND Composition ; Dairy Management . . 182 

Appendix — 

Tables 199 

Index 209 



FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 



CHAPTEE I. 
The Constituents of Plants; Plant Growth. 

Parts of Plants. — Most agricultural plants possess 
three distinct parts, — the root, the stem, and the leaf. 
The main uses of the root are to secure food from the soil, 
and to serve as a support to the plant during its period 
of life. The stem acts as a support for the leaves, as 
a medium for the circulation of food through the plant, 
from the leaf to the root and from the root to the leaf, 
and as a storehouse of nutriment for future growth. The 
leaves secure food from the atmosphere, and permit the 
escape into the air of the water taken up by the roots. 

These different parts all co-operate, or work together, 
to secure and distribute the constituents necessary to the 
complete growth and development of the whole plant. 
What is plant food, or of what constituents is a plant 
composed, is a question of the first importance in a study 
of the growth of plants. 

The Water contained in Plants. — A plant in the 
first place is composed of two distinct classes of sub- 
stances, — water and dry matter. Water is contained in 
all growing plants ; forest and fruit trees seldom contain 

7 



8 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

less than four-fifths, while vegetables and young plants 
are frequently nine-tenths water. 

When plants are removed from the soil, and brought in 
contact with the air and warmth, a large part of the water 
contained in them escapes in the form of water vapor ; 
they become what is termed " air dry." The proportion of 
water lost in this way, and the time or rapidity of loss, 
depend upon the moisture contained in them, and the 
warmth of the atmosphere ; the drier and warmer the 
atmosphere, the greater the loss of water. This loss of 
water is nicely illustrated in hay-making, the time re- 
quired to dry or cure depending upon the kind of plant 
and the character of the weather. 

Air-dry Plants. — In temperate climates, air-dry plants 
still contain from eight to twelve per cent of water. To 
effect its complete removal they are heated to a temper- 
ature of 212° F., that of boiling water, until there is no 
further loss of weight. The portion remaining after the 
drying is termed the " dry matter." The dry matter of 
plants contains all the constituents of their growth ; that 
is, all those necessary for perfect growth, no one of which 
can be removed without destroying it. 

Water, while it is essential in the growth of plants 
and serves a useful purpose, is not a constituent in the 
same sense as those which are contained in the dry 
matter, since, as has already been noted, it can be removed 
without destroying the structure and form of the plant. 

The Total Dry Matter. — The total dry matter of 
plants contains all those substances or compounds which 
are useful for the purposes for which they are grown. 
The constituents contained in it may also, for convenience 



TEE CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS, 9 

of study, be divided into two classes : first, those which 
are lost or driven away by burning, or are capable of being 
burned ; and second, those which are contained in the ash 
or residue after burning. The first are called "combus- 
tible" or burnable constituents; the others are called the 
" incombustible " or ash constituents. 

The part that is removed by burning contains the con- 
stituents that have been derived largely from the air, 
while the remainder contains the mineral substances which 
have been derived largely from the soil. The burning 
of wood illustrates the separation of these two classes 
of constituents and the proportions of each. 

Each one of the constituents contained in a plant is 
a distinct chemical element ; and the number and kind 
which have been found to be absolutely essential to the 
growth of plants are carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, 
potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, phosphorus, and 
sulphur. These are called plant-food elements, and all 
healthy plants contain them ; if, by any chance, any 
one of them could not be obtained, the plant could not 
make normal growth, and in this sense no one of them 
is of more importance than another. 

Besides these, however, the chemical elements, silicon, 
chlorine, sodium, manganese, and sometimes others, do 
exist in the plant, though plants can be grown without 
them. Thus, at most, but fourteen only of the seventy 
known chemical elements are necessary for the growth 
of a plant, and form its food. The large number of 
different species and varieties of plants now existing is, 
however, capable of being produced from them, the 
different properties and forms being entirely due to a 



10 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

different grouping or combining of the constituents in 
tlie plant. 

Source of Plant-food Elements. — Plants derive the 
elements of their growth from two sources, — the atmos- 
phere and the soil. The atmosphere, while the original 
source of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, fur- 
nishes direct chiefly the element carbon. Hydrogen and 
oxygen are furnished mainly through the soil in the 
form of water; though the original source is the atmos- 
phere, where they exist in the form of '^ water vapor." 
Nitrogen is also largely taken up by the roots of plants ; 
though certain classes of plants, as we shall see later, 
have the power, under proper conditions, of obtaining it 
from the atmosphere, of which it constitutes about four- 
fifths of the whole bulk. 

The Proportion of Food derived from the Air. — 
These constituents derived from the atmosphere constitute 
about ninety-five per cent of the total dry matter of 
plants, of which carbon constitutes nearly one-half; the 
remaining five per cent is the " incombustible " or ash 
constituents. The soil is the exclusive source of these 
elements; they are, however, indispensable, for without 
them the carbon of the atmosphere, the hydrogen and 
oxygen of the water, and the nitrogen of the soil or at- 
mosphere, would not have been able to enter into plant life. 

The atmospheric constituents are usually termed the 
" organic ; " and the soil constituents, the " inorganic," 
or ash elements. This distinction, though not entirely 
accurate, serves a good purpose in helping to get a proper 
understanding of the relations of the compounds formed 
in the plant. 



THE CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 11 

The Essential Constituents, How Determined. — 

The sources of the chemical constituents necessary to the 
growth of plants, as well as their kind and number, 
have been determined by careful experiments, conducted 
in the following manner : — 

Sand, which is an inert substance, is thoroughly burned, 
which destroys all combustible matter ; then carefully 
washed, which removes all traces of plant-food ; a por- 
tion is then put in a suitable jar or box, and seed of 
wheat or corn planted, and moistened with pure distilled 
water. The sand contains no food, yet the weight of 
the dry matter in the growth made is shown, by careful 
analysis of both seed and plant, to be much greater than 
the weight of the seed planted ; also, that the increase 
in weight consists entirely of carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen, which must have been obtained from the air 
and water. This establishes the fact that air and water 
furnish food, and that this food consists of atmospheric 
elements. 

In another series of experiments, to the sand and water, 
in one experiment, the various essential ash or mineral 
constituents alone, are added ; to another, nitrogen alone ; 
while to a third, both the ash constituents and nitrogen 
are added. In the first and second experiments, but little 
addition is made in the weight of the crop over that 
secured when water alone was added ; the growths are not 
perfect ; minerals alone, and nitrogen alone, are not suffi- 
cient. In the third experiment, however, the crop is fully 
developed in every particular, proving that the addition 
of minerals and nitrogen is absolutely essential. 

The necessity of each of the mineral constituents, and 



12 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

their influence, are shown by omitting in each case, in 
another series of experiments, one of the mineral ele- 
ments ; the crop secured in each experiment is found to 
be imperfect. Perfect growth is only reached when all 
the elements named are present. 

Pood obtained from the Atmosphere. — The leaves 
and roots are called organs of nutrition ; the leaves take 
material from the air, the roots from the soil. 

The dry substance of a plant is made up chiefly of 
carbon, and the proper absorption of this element depends 
upon the activity of the leaves. The leaf is made up of 
rows of cells, placed side by side, which in the under 
portion are loosely held together, forming " air spaces " 
between them, and over the whole leaf there is a thin, 
transparent skin. This skin, called the '^epidermis," is 
not entire, but is dotted with little holes called " stomata ; " 
through these the atmospheric air passes freely into the 
cellular spaces in the leaf, and through the porous walls 
of the leaf cells, which contain a green substance called 
'^ chlorophyll." 

In these cells, containing chlorophyll, the carbonic acid 
of the air is broken up through the influence of light and 
warmth, and the oxygen set free and the carbon retained. 
This process is called "assimilation," and is active only 
during the daytime ; during the night the food, formed by 
day, undergoes a change, whereby it can be transferred in 
solution to the places where it is needed. Daylight, as 
also the presence of iron in the plant, is necessary for 
the formation of chlorophyll. 

In the daytime, growing plants purify the air by con- 
suming the carbon ; in the night, the process is reversed, 



THE CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 13 

oxygen being then consumed. The quantity of oxygen 
set free by young plants is, however, greatly in excess of 
that consumed. The food directly supplied by the atmos- 
phere is, therefore, chiefly carbon. 

The carbon absorbed by the plant, in connection with 
the hydrogen and oxygen of the water, forms starch, dex- 
trine, sugar, fat, cellulose, substances serviceable in the 
growing plant, and to be stored away for future use in 
seeds, roots, and stems ; and the same elements, together 
with nitrogen and a little sulphur, form the albuminoids. 
All of these are vegetable substances with which we are 
familiar, and which are termed " organic." 

Food obtained from the Soil. — Eoots are of two 
kinds, — the " tap root," the chief use of which is to sus- 
tain the plant in an upright position; and the "fibrous 
root," which is engaged mainly in absorbing food from 
the soil. These roots are made up of cells, through the 
walls of which solid matter cannot pass ; all food absorbed 
by the root must be in solution. The surface membrane 
of the root, unlike that of the leaf, is not full of holes ; 
the absorption of solids is, therefore, impossible. The 
absorption of the solution by the root is obtained by 
means of what is called "diffusion." By this means 
water is absorbed, and, with the water, the dissolved 
food elements usually contained in the ash of plants. The 
absorption of food is, however, not confined to the taking 
up of ready formed solutions. 

The root grows at its tip, and it is through the delicate 
cells located there that the plant absorbs nutriment. The 
tips are protected by a sheath, or cover, of dead or dying 
cells, which protects the delicate fibres, and permits the 



14 FIB ST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

root to penetrate the soil without injury. The acid sap 
or fluid which is produced by the root, hair, or cell, when 
it comes in contact with soil particles, has a solvent effect 
upon them ; thus is insoluble matter in the soil, containing 
ash ingredients, made soluble to the plant. 

These elements derived from the soil are, however, not 
taken up in the form of individual chemical elements, but 
chiefly as acid or salts. Nitrogen, for instance, is com- 
bined with oxygen to form nitric acid ; which, united with 
bases like sodium or calcium, forms sodium or calcium 
nitrates. The very weak solutions of the compounds 
taken up by the roots are concentrated in the upper part 
of the plant, owing to the rapid evaporation of the water 
through the leaves, and are employed in the formation of 
new tissues. 

Supply of Food Constituents. — The atmosphere 
contains relatively a very small proportion of carbonic 
acid, from which the carbon is obtained ; it is less in the 
open country and over large bodies of water, and more in 
the vicinity of towns, yet the supply in the aggregate is 
enormous, and is sufficient to meet all the demands of 
vegetation for carbon. 

The atmosphere also contains small quantities of nitro- 
gen, existing both as ammonia and as nitrates ; these are 
brought to the earth by means of dew and rain, and thus 
act as a direct source of this element to plants. The 
amount so provided is, however, insufficient for the 
entire needs of vegetation. 

The moisture, or " water vapor " in the atmosphere does 
not, to any great extent, serve to supply the plant with 
water, the absorption of water being a function of the 



THE CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 15 

roots rather than the leaves. The leaves absorb water 
when there is an insufficient supply in the soil, or when 
the weather is such as to cause a very rapid exhalation 
from the leaves. The su^Dply of the mineral constituents 
depends upon the character and composition of the soil, 
upon the season, and climate ; these conditions are not uni- 
form, hence the increased variation in the character of the 
natural vegetation found in different parts of the world. 

Functions of the Constituents. — The exact work 
that each constituent performs in plant nutrition has not 
yet been definitely determined. It has been shown that 
nitrogen is of vital importance, since it is an essential 
constituent of the living principle of plants called "pro- 
toplasm." Phosphorus and sulphur have been found 
essential constituents in the formation of albuminoids, a 
very important compound of all plants. Potash is neces- 
sary to the formation and distribution of starch, while the 
green color of plants, or chlorophyll, cannot be formed 
without iron. All the constituents mentioned are neces- 
sary, and are concerned in the various processes which 
result in the perfect plant. 

The Natural Tendency of Plant Growth. — The ulti- 
mate object of all plants in their natural state is to form 
seed, or the beginning of new plants. The seed of every 
plant contains within itself a sufficiency of food to nourish 
the germ till the root and leaves of the new plant are 
sufficiently developed to acquire food from the sources 
mentioned. 

Germination : the Conditions Necessary. — The 
first evidences of growth are shown in the germination 
or sprouting of the seed. This beginning depends chiefly 



16 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

upon three conditions, — first, the presence of moisture ; 
second, of warmth, or a proper degree of temperature ; 
and third, the access of air. The seed of the wheat plant, 
for instance, will retain its form and remain a seed for a 
long time if kept dry. As soon as it is enabled to absorb 
moisture it increases in size, oxygen is absorbed from the 
air, and heat develops ; it separates the germ, and is no 
longer a seed, but a young plant. Seeds do not germi- 
nate below a certain temperature, usually about 37° E. ; 
the warmth necessary for germination is, however, differ- 
ent for different seeds. Wheat will not germinate below 
41° F., and corn below 49° Y. There is also a certain 
temperature above which seed will not germinate ; the 
higher limit is 108° F. for wheat, and 115° F. for corn. 
The temperature of most rapid germination lies between 
79° F. and 94° F. 

The presence of air is universal, and care in this 
respect is only important when plants are grown in 
comparative confinement. 

Duration of Life. — Plants which germinate, grow, 
and produce flower, fruit, and seed in one year, and then 
die, are called "annuals." Wheat, rye, oats, buckwheat, 
peas, and beans are good examples of annual plants. 
Certain other plants require two seasons for this work; 
these are called " biennials." During the first season, the 
organs of growth are developed, viz., the root and leaf ; 
the second season, the flower, fruit, and seed are formed, 
after which the plants die. Examples of biennial plants 
are cabbages, turnips, parsnips, celery, lettuce, beets, etc. 

In order to secure seed it is not necessary that the 
plants remain in the ground throughout the winter. Cer- 



THE CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 17 

tain quick growing biennials, as radishes, may produce 
seed in one year, if removed from the soil after the root 
is full grown, topped, and transplanted. 

" Perennials " are plants that live for more than two 
years ; timber-trees, fruit-trees, berries, grape-vines, etc., 
are good examples, though perennials are not confined to 
trees and shrubs ; asparagus, a number of the clovers, 
and various grasses, also belong to this group. 

Plant Development. — The development of the plant 
after germination is not uniform ; the substances obtained 
by the roots are greatest in the young plant, which is 
always rich in nitrogen and ash elements. As the plant 
grows, the proportion of food derived from the atmos- 
phere through the action of the leaves steadily increases. 

The wheat crop contains practically all of its nitrogen 
and potash when in full bloom ; carbon increases as long 
as the plant remains green. When the seeds begin to 
form, the food gathered by the leaf and root is largely 
transferred from the stem and leaf of the plant, and 
concentrated in the seed. 

Cereals and grasses cut while the crop is green are 
much richer in nutritive matter than when they are 
allowed to ripen seed. In such crops as turnips, beets, 
and potatoes, the development of root and leaf is the 
same as in wheat ; but at the completion of growth, food 
is stored up or contained in the root, or tuber, and the 
leaves die after the food in the plant has been largely 
transferred. In trees, the plant-food gathered by the 
root is concentrated by the end of summer in the pith 
of the tender branches and in buds, and serves as food 
for the new growths of another season. 



18 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 



CHAPTEE II. 
Origin and Formation of Soils. 

Soils : Their Origin, Formation, and Classification. 
— Every growing thing can be traced back to two primary 
sources, — the atmosphere and the soil. Every chemical 
element contained in plants or in animals produced from 
plants can be found either in the soil or atmosphere. 

The constituents which plants derive from the atmos- 
phere are so abundant everywhere that the continuous 
growth of maximum crops cannot exhaust them, and no 
particular efforts are required to increase their efficiency 
to the plant. The constituents of the soil are much less 
abundant, and the power of the plant to secure them 
depends very largely upon the effort of the farmer. To 
the farmer, then, the soil is the object of first attention. 

What is a Soil? — The soil is the name given to that 
part of the earth that can be cultivated, and in which 
plants can grow. 

Origin of Soils. — Soils are derived, directly or in- 
directly, from the rotting or decay of rocks. If all the 
earthy matter which composes soils could be removed 
from the surface of the earth, the remainder would be 
solid rock. Eocks have been formed by the action of 
fire and water ; hence they are classed as " igneous," that 
is, produced by the action of fire, or " aqueous," produced 



OBIGIN AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 19 

by the action of water. The igneous rocks form but a 
small proportion of the outer rocks of the world ; yet 
they are of great importance, because it is through their 
decay or breaking up that the other rocks have been 
formed. 

The most important of the igneous rocks are granite 
and trap. These contain silica and alumina as their chief 
constituents, and greater or less amounts of potash, lime, 
magnesia, iron, and the other mineral constituents of 
plants. These rocks are also called " primary rocks,'' 
because they are supposed to constitute the primary or 
first crust of the earth, and to be similar in character 
and composition to the now molten interior of the earth. 
This view is based upon the fact that the lava ejected 
from active volcanoes resembles in composition the trap 
rocks. 

The trap rocks consist mainly of two minerals, feldspar 
and hornblende. Feldspar is particularly rich in potash 
and soda, and poor in lime and magnesia. Hornblende 
is poor in potash and soda, and rich in lime and mag- 
nesia. Granite rocks consist mainly of quartz, feldspar, 
and mica. Quartz is almost pure silica; while mica con- 
tains nearly all the compounds found in both feldspar and 
hornblende, and is one of the most abundant minerals. 

The aqueous rocks are formed from the minerals con- 
tained in igneous rocks, the proportion of the different 
constituents contained in them depending upon the method 
of their formation. Limestone and red sandstone are 
good examples of aqueous rocks. 

Subsoil. — The subsoil lies immediately underneath 
the soil, and rests upon the solid rock. The main dis- 



20 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

tinction between soil and subsoil is that the soil contains 
more organic or vegetable matter, is more finely divided, 
and is less compact than the subsoil. The subsoil may 
be regarded as something between the soil and rock, 
and partaking in part of the characteristics of both. 
The subsoil serves to gradually supply the constituents 
that are removed by crops from the surface soil, and 
also performs important functions as a reservoir of 
moisture, and as a medium for the roots of plants. Its 
character thus materially modifies the fertility and pro- 
ductiveness of the soil proper. 

The Formation of Soil. — Certain agencies are con- 
stantly at Avork converting rock into soil. This gradual 
conversion is termed "weathering," and is observed on 
all sides. The rapid crumbling of shale, so familiar in 
New Jersey, on exposure to the atmosphere, is an ex- 
cellent illustration of this process, — the air, temperature, 
and water all playing an important part. 

The Action of the Atmosphere. — The atmosphere 
causes what is termed " oxidation," a slow burning or 
decay. The oxygen of the air combines with the miner- 
als, forming new substances called '^ oxides." A familiar 
illustration of this process is seen when iron is exposed 
to the air; the red rust that forms is an oxide of iron, 
a substance very different from the iron itself. 

The Influence of Water. — The most powerful agent 
in the rotting or breaking up of rocks is water. It acts 
both mechanically and chemically. Most rocks contain 
cracks or fissures into which the water readily penetrates ; 
by freezing the water expands, and forces the rock apart. 
Thus the solid rock is gradually separated into fragments 



OEIGIN AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 21 

of different sizes. The force of the water in rains and 
streams grinds the fragments together continually, wear- 
ing them smaller, and the smallest are first carried away 
by the water to lower levels. 

The overflow of rivers always leaves a deposit of soil 
particles, more or less finely divided, carried in suspen- 
sion in the water ; this sediment gradually accumulating 
forms soil. What are termed by geologists "sedimentary, 
or aqueous, rocks " have also been formed by the action 
of water, followed by heat or pressure, or both. 

Water also has a decided effect chemically. The 
carbonic acid in the water absorbed from the atmosphere 
dissolves certain of the chemical ingredients of the soil, 
particularly lime, though its solvent effect is not confined 
to this substance ; soda, potash, silica, and iron are also 
attacked to a greater or less degree. 

The Growth of Plants. — The growth of plants is 
also active in the rotting of rocks. In their growth 
the roots penetrate the crevices and force the particles 
of rock to separate ; they also attack and absorb certain 
portions of the constituents that are made soluble. In 
the decay of plants, the soil is kept moist, gases are 
generated and absorbed by the water, which, again pene- 
trating the rocks, has a solvent effect up)on them. 

It is a matter of common observation to see rocks 
covered with the lower orders of plants, like lichens 
and mosses ; the removal of these frequently shows the 
rocks furrowed and eaten into by the roots,, due to the 
action described. This growth and this decay of vege- 
table life, continued through a long series of years, gradu- 
ally deepen the soil, and prepare it to produce the higher 



22 FIRST PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

order of agricultural plants, or those useful as food for 
man. 

Earth Worms. — Earth worms and other living crea- 
tures living in the ground also aid in preparing the soil 
for the growth of plants. They burrow deep into the 
ground ; the passages thus made aid in drainage and 
circulation of air, and facilitate the penetration of roots, 
which increases their power to secure food. They also 
drag into their underground passages considerable vege- 
table matter, which in its decay aids in forming true soil. 

Movement of Soils. — While our present soil remains 
almost constant in quantity, the parts removed by various 
causes being supplied by the gradual decay of the rocks, 
the same agencies which form soils, particiilarly weather 
action, are wasting or carrying them away. Soil is almost 
constantly moving; it is thinnest at the top of the hill, 
and deepest in the valley. This is very noticeable in 
mountainous or hilly districts ; great furrows are formed 
in the hillsides after heavy rains, the swollen and muddy 
streams carrying the soil in suspension to lower parts 
of the land. 

Soils in Place. — Soils which have been formed from 
the decay of the underlying rock are called sedentary 
soils, or soils in place; they have not been moved from 
the place in which they originated. These partake of the 
nature and composition of the rock underneath; though, 
from the method of their formation, viz., the growth 
and decay of plants, they contain considerable vegetable 
matter obtained from the atmosphere. 

Transported Soils. — Transported soils are those 
which have been moved from the place where they 



ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 23 

originated, and deposited from water or ice. The former 
are called '^ alluvial ; " these occur not only in valleys 
and river-beds, but in inland places, where they have 
been deposited in lakes or other bodies of water. Those 
deposited from ice are called " drift soils ; " these have 
been formed by the action of "glaciers," vast bodies of 
ice moving like a river, which carry considerable quanti- 
ties of earth as well as numerous rocks. 

The results of glacial action are found, not only in 
valleys, but in high mountains, where rocks show, by 
well-defined scratches, the wearing and grinding effect of 
the moving ice. 

Drift soils are distinguished from all others by the 
presence of rounded rocks or bowlders, and, though not 
uniform either in composition or character, are usually 
fertile, the fertility being due chiefly to the bringing 
together, from numerous sources, of a variety of min- 
eral substances. 

Classification of Soils. — The principal ingredients 
of soils are sand, clay, carbonate of lime, and vegetable 
or organic matter. They are, therefore, divided into four 
natural classes ; viz., sandy, clayey, limy, and peaty, ac- 
cording to the greater proportion in each case of one 
of these four ingredients. 

What is Sand? — Sand or silica is composed of the 
mineral silicon united with the chemical element oxygen, 
and does not serve directly as food for plants. A soil 
consisting entirely of sand would be useless to the farmer, 
for he could produce nothing from it in its natural con- 
dition. It possesses distinct properties, however, which 
render soils containing considerable sand light and open. 



24 FIRST PEINCIPLES OF AGlllCULTURE. 

and therefore permeable to air, moisture, and warmth. 
The stony particles of sand are also rapidly heated by 
the rays of the sun, thus very greatly influencing the 
temperature of the soil. 

What is Clay ? — Pure clay contains silica, together 
with alumina, a compound of aluminum and oxygen. 
From a chemical point of view, pure clay would be 
quite as useless as sand as a source of plant-food, neither 
silica nor alumina being essential constituents of plants. 
The properties of clay are almost the reverse of those 
of sand. Particles of sand do not adhere to each other 
— moist sand pressed firmly in the hand will fall apart 
immediately the pressure ceases ; particles of clay, on the 
contrary, readily adhere to each other, and, when moist, 
can be moulded into any desired shape, which is retained ; 
on heating, the particles adhere still more strongly, a 
characteristic taken advantage of by the manufacturers 
of brick, tile, etc. Sand from its porous nature rapidly 
loses water; clay from its compact nature retains mois- 
ture. Sand absorbs heat rapidly, and soon becomes dry; 
clay absorbs heat more slowly, and remains cool. Clay, 
like sand, is, however, a valuable constituent of soils ; its 
tenacious character enabling it to retain both mf)isture 
and the useful constituents applied in manures. 

Lime. — The lime of soils usually exists in the form 
of carbonate of lime, or limestone. Limestone is a valu- 
able ingredient of soils, not only because it furnishes 
the important constituent of plants, calcium, but because 
of its relative ease of decomposition, and of its valuable 
action upon and reaction with other soil constituents ; 
it aids in the decay of vegetable matter, and in the 



OBIGIN AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 25 

formation of nitrates. It exerts a favorable physical 
effect upon soils ; its presence helps to separate the adhe- 
sive particles of clay, and makes heavy soils loose and 
friable, which permits the easy passage of water through 
them. Lime also increases the absorbing and retaining 
power of sandy soils, by causing the particles to adhere 
more closely to each other. 

Humus. — The decaying vegetable matter in soils, 
which is made up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and 
nitrogen, is called "humus." In virgin soils it is derived 
from the dead roots and leaves of a former vegetation. 
It has a dark brown or blackish color. Leaf mould, 
found in forests, is largely composed of humus. It was 
believed at one time that humus served as a direct food 
for plants, but this idea has been proved to be incorrect; 
it is the final products of its decay, chiefly carbonic acid, 
ammonia, and water, that serve as plant-food. 

Humus is a very useful ingredient in all kinds of 
soils, though a soil may contain too much decaying 
organic matter. Humus improves sandy soils, not only 
on account of the nitrogen and other plant-f(Tod con- 
stituents which it contains, but because it increases their 
absorbing and retaining power. Humus will absorb and 
retain more moisture than any other ingredient of soils. 
Clay soils are improved by it, however, on account of its 
property of loosening and aerating them. 

The four principal ingredients of soils are useful, there- 
fore, not altogether because they furnish plant-food, but 
because they give to soils certain physical properties 
which enable them to retain heat, moisture, and plant- 
food. These properties give to soils what is called phys- 



26 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTUBE. 

ical character, which is very important in determining 
fertility. 

Sandy Soils. — Land which contains over seventy per 
cent of sand is called sandy. Such soils are not only 
poor in plant-food, but they can absorb and retain but 
little moisture. The soil, loosely held together, permits 
the rapid passage of water, and the stony particles readily 
absorb heat. In hot, dry seasons, the crops are soon 
parched ; in wet seasons, however, these same properties 
enable the soil to dry quickly, thus permitting, if suffi- 
cient food is provided, the growth of maximum crops, 
when they would be destroyed from excess of mois- 
ture on soils of a more dense or tenacious character. 
Sandy soils are easy to work, and may be cultivated 
when quite wet without injury, and are well adapted 
to quick-growing crops; when overlying clay subsoils, 
they are susceptible of a high degree of fertility. 

Clay Soils. — A clay soil is one which contains over 
fifty per cent of clay. A clay soil is almost the reverse 
of a sandy soil. The finely divided particles adhere so 
closely as to make the access of air, moisture, and 
warmth, difficult; they are, therefore, called cold and 
tenacious. They are hard to work, and, unless well 
drained, crops are liable to suffer both in wet and dry 
seasons ; in wet seasons because the moisture is not freely 
movable, and in dry seasons because the land becomes 
so hard as to prevent the penetration of roots. They 
are well adapted to the growth of cereals and grasses. 

Limestone Soils. — The term " lime " or " calcareous," 
is applied to a soil when it contains over twenty per 
cent of lime. Limy soils are usually of a good char- 



ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 27 

acter, are easy to work, and well adapted to cereals or 
fruit. 

Peaty or Vegetable Soils. — A peaty or vegetable 
soil consists almost entirely of vegetable matter, more 
or less decayed. Such, soils are very productive if well 
drained, and furnished Avith a sufficiency of the mineral 
constituents. 

Soils, however, which are best adapted to the purpose 
of farming do not belong strictly to either of these 
classes, but are rather those which contain more even 
proportions of the ingredients ; hence, a further division 
of soils is usually made, based upon the relative propor- 
tions of the principal ingredients, sand and clay. 

Loamy Soils. — A soil consisting of a mixture of 
sand and clay is called a loam; if it contains from ten 
to twenty per cent of clay, it is a sandy loam ; if from 
twenty to thirty per cent of clay, it is a loam ; if from 
thirty to fifty per cent of clay, a clay loam. Gravelly 
or limy loams are those in which gravel or coarse sand 
and lime are contained in considerable amounts. Loams 
are suitable for most purposes, and soils of the different 
natural classes are improved as they approach the char- 
acter of loams. 

It would be impossible to describe and classify the 
almost infinite variety of soils which exist in nature, and 
which are made up from different proportions of the 
four ingredients mentioned. 

Perfect Soil. — A perfect soil is one which contains 
the ingredients in perfect proportions : sand, to enable it 
to absorb air and moisture in proper amounts, and to 
render it warm and friable ; clay, to keep it cool, and 



28 FIRST PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

prevent a too rapid leaching or evaporation of water ; 
lime, to assist in the decay of vegetable matter ; and 
humus, to retain the best amount of moisture, and to 
furnish material for the various chemical processes con- 
tinually going on in good soils. 

These conditions are rare, and seldom occur in nature, 
though it is in the power of man to produce them: still, 
perfect soils are not to be had without a great deal of 
labor and care ; and frequently it is more important for 
the farmer to adapt himself to his soil, and make it 
I)roduce the best which, from its natural character, it is 
best capable of doing, than to attempt to change its 
character. He should not attempt to raise wheat when 
the soil is peculiarly fitted to grow early vegetables or 
fruits, nor to grow early vegetables on soils only adapted 
for the grasses. 



COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 29 



CHAPTER III. 
Composition of Soils. 

A SOIL, like a plant, consists of two distinct classes 
of substances, — first, organic or vegetable, derived, as we 
have seen, from decaying growths ; second, inorganic or 
mineral constituents, derived from the rocks which form 
the earth's surface. 

Organic Substances. — Organic substances are made 
up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Of these 
the nitrogen is of the most direct importance in the 
growth of the plant, and is the valuable constituent of 
the humus already described. 

Inorganic Substances. — The inorganic or mineral 
substances of the soil are also identical with the sub- 
stance of the ash of plants (with the addition of alu- 
mina, which is not taken up by the latter), namely, 
silica, alumina, lime, potash, magnesia, phosphoric acid, 
soda, iron, chlorine, and sulphuric acid. The first three 
of these, as has already been noted, are the principal 
ingredients of soils, and give to them their distinctive 
character; with the exception of lime, they do not aid 
materially in furnishing food. The more important con- 
stituents are phosphoric acid and potash. 

Phosphoric Acid. — Phosphoric acid is an ingredient 
of all fertile soils, but is contained in very small quan- 



30 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

titles as compared with other constituents. Its most 
common combination is with lime, though it is frequently 
found in combination with iron and aluminum. Eocks 
which contain ^^ fossils/' or fossiliferous rocks, frequently 
contain high percentages of phosphoric acid. 

Potash. — Potash is also derived from rocks, and 
varies in the amount contained in different soils. Those 
derived directly from granite or trap are the richest in 
this element ; it exists in the soil in combination with 
silica, forming substances called " silicates," which are 
of great importance. 

Lime. — Lime is an ingredient of most soils, and is 
derived from the decay of limestone, or from fossils. 

The Natural Fertility of Soils. — The mineral con- 
stituents, phosphoric acid and potash, though contained 
in soils in relatively small amounts, ranging from less 
than one-tenth per cent to over one per cent, give to 
soils their chief claims to natural fertility ; since most 
agricultural plants require relatively large proportions 
of these in proportion to other mineral constituents. 

The quantity of phosphoric acid and potash contained 
in a soil is, however, comparatively great, since the sur- 
face soil at a depth of nine inches will weigh, when per- 
fectly dry, three to three and one-half million pounds 
per acre ; hence, with even one-tenth per cent, it would 
contain from three thousand to three thousand five hun- 
dred pounds of each of these constituents. 

The other necessary mineral ingredients are found in 
greater or less, and usually in sufficient amounts in all 
soils. These, while all essential to the complete develop- 
ment of the plant, are of course less liable to exhaustion. 



COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 31 

The immediate fertility of a soil depends, however, 
not so much upon the quantity of the constituents con- 
tained in it as upon the amount of each that may be 
available to the plant. 

Analysis of Soils. — The composition of a rich wheat 
soil and of a wheat plant, as shown by analysis, in 
the diagrams^ (page 32), indicates the relation of the 
composition of the plant to the composition of the soil. 

The chemical analysis of a soil shows the percentages 
of the different constituents contained in it. It is ob- 
served that the constituents which the soil possesses 
to only a limited extent are contained in the plant in 
relatively large amounts; these are, therefore, termed 
essential plant-food constituents, because of their greater 
liability to exhaustion. 

Weight of Soils. — In studying a soil from a state- 
ment of its analysis, regard must be had to the weight 
of soils. The constituents of the analysis are expressed 
in per cent or pounds per hundred ; it is evident, there- 
fore, that a soil weighing one hundred pounds per cubic 
foot, and containing four-tenths of a per cent of phos- 
phoric acid, would contain a much greater amount of 
phosphoric acid per acre than a soil showing the same 
percentage, but weighing fifty pounds per cubic foot. 

It is estimated that dry sand weighs from one hun- 
dred to one hundred and twenty pounds per cubic foot ; 
loam, from ninety to one hundred pounds ; clay, seventy 
to eighty pounds ; and peat, thirty to fifty pounds. An 
analysis, therefore, which shows the same per cent 
of the constituents in one soil may not indicate its 
1 Adapted from Ville. 



32 



FIRST PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 



Composition of Rich Wheat Soil. 



POUNDS PER HUNDRED. 



Carbon. 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen. 



12.67 



Silica 71.55 

Alumina . . . . 6.94 

Iron 5.17 

Magnesia . . . 1.08 

Soda 0.43 

Sulphuric Acid . 0.04 
85.21 

Nitrogen .... 0.12' 
Phosphoric Acid . 0.43 ' 
Potash .... 0.35 

Lime 1.22 , 

2.12 



Elements which, though essential, are abun- 
dantly supplied by the air and water. 



Elements which are either non-essential or 
are required by the plant in minimum 
amounts. 



Elements absolutely essential, of which rela- 
tively large amounts are required. 



Composition of Wheat Plant. 

POUNDS PER HUNDRED. 



Carbon . 
Hydrogen 
Oxygen . 



47.69 

5.54 y These are derived from the air and rain. 
40.32 
93.55 



Soda 0.09 

Magnesia . . . 0.20 

Sulphuric Acid . 0.31 

Chlorine .... 0.04 

Iron 0.06 

Silica 2J5 

3.45 

Nitrogen .... 1.60' 
Phosphoric Acid . 0.45 
Potash .... 0.66 

Lime 0^ 

3.00 



These are abundantly provided by the soil, 
and it is unnecessary to add them in any 
case. 



These the soil possesses only to a limited ex- 
tent, and the deficiency must be supplied. 



COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 33 

true character in reference to the amount of plant-food 
contained in it, unless it is accompanied by a descrip- 
tion of its general character, whether sandy, clayey, -or 
peaty. 

It will be observed from the foregoing, too, that the 
ordinary idea of the weight of soil has reference to the 
physical character, rather than actual weight. A sandy 
soil is called " light," and a clay soil ^' heavy ; " while in 
reality a sandy soil is heavy, and a clay soil is light. 

The sandy soil is called light because it is easier to 
work, — the particles of sand are readily separated from 
each other, and no particular force is required ; while in 
the case of clay soils the particles adhere tenaciously, and 
it requires considerable force to separate them. 

Classes of Soil Constituents. — The constituents of 
a soil may again be divided into three classes, — first, 
those which serve mainly as a mechanical support for the 
plants, like sand, clay, limestone, and gravel ; second, 
dormant or reserve substances, which not only act the 
same as the first class, but are capable of changing to 
such a form as to furnish nutrition to the plant; these 
are of both vegetable and mineral origin ; and third, 
active constituents, or those directly available to plants. 

The mechanical constituents constitute the bulk of all 
soils — frequently over ninety-five per cent. The second 
class, or dormant, are contained in most soils in rela- 
tively small amounts as compared with the first class, 
though the quantity that a soil may contain varies con- 
siderably, depending upon its formation. 

The active constituents, those that are immediately 
available to the plant, are never present in even the 



34 FIB ST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

best soils in large amounts ; they are formed slowly from 
those that are dormant. Humus is not a direct food, 
but is capable of being changed into food. 

Clay and substances containing phosphoric acid, by 
weathering, or the action of frost, heat, and moisture, 
are changed to such an extent as to give up, in time, 
portions of their potash, phosphoric acid, and lime. 

The True Measure of Fertility. — The active constit- 
uents, however, measure the true fertility of any soil. 
The dormant substances may be rich in phosphates, pot- 
ash, lime, and humus, and yet it may be impossible to 
produce a single plant from them, because the surround- 
ing conditions are never favorable for the activities that 
cause their change into active substances. 

An analysis of the soil does not show true fertility, 
unless it shows how much of the total constituents of 
the soil are capable of being made active, and thus 
useful to the crops : it simply shows the possibilities 
that are lying dormant. 

One Element Cannot Substitute Another. — An- 
other point is also important in this connection ; namely, 
that, of the three active constituents, nitrogen, phos- 
phoric acid, and potash, which exist in small quantities 
in all soils, the one contained in minimum amounts in 
the soil determines its power of producing plants; that 
is, the crop cannot rise above the point measured by 
the element existing in the smallest amount — one ele- 
ment cannot be substituted for another. For example, 
if we have in an acre of soil only sufficient nitrogen for 
ten bushels of wheat, the crop could not be increased 
to any considerable extent beyond that point, even though 



COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 35 

phosphoric acid and potash were contained in unlimited 
quantities ; a balance of the plant-food constituents is 
essential to full and complete growth and development. 

Exhaustion of Soils. — Exhaustion of soils has refer- 
ence mainly to the four constituents, nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid, potash, and lime ; the amount of the others is usually 
contained in excessive quantities in all soils. Exhaustion 
is, however, a relative matter, since it is not possible 
to completely exhaust a soil of its active constituents. 
Exhaustion means properly the reducing of the constit- 
uents to that point which makes the production of crops 
unprofitable; hence the question of exhaustion is a vari- 
able one, determined in a large measure by local circum- 
stances. 

Exhaustion, too, may have reference to one constituent 
only; for instance, there may be an abundance of nitro- 
gen and phosphoric acid, and a deficiency of potash. 
By growing a class of crops which take more of the 
constituents that are present in relatively large amounts, 
and less of those that exist in small amounts, the period 
of exhaustion is deferred. 

Natural Strength of Soils. — The power which soils 
possess of gradually forming active ingredients is termed 
natural strength. It is obvious that the character and 
origin of the soil have an important bearing upon this 
point. 

The natural strength of a light sandy soil may be 
measured by a crop of wheat of five bushels per acre ; 
while the natural strength of rich valley or prairie soil 
may be measured by an annual yield of twenty-five 
bushels of wheat per acre; that is, in the one case, the 



36 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

substances which form the soil are of such a character 
as to permit of the change of but a small proportion of 
its dormant into active constituents, while, in the other, 
a large proportion of the constituents are annually ren- 
dered available. 

Soils overlying limestone and granite, and those formed 
by the gradual accumulation of vegetable matter, as in 
the prairies of the Western States, possess a high natu- 
ral strength. They contain large quantities of the dor- 
mant constituents, which are of such a character as to 
be readily changed into activity under ordinary condi- 
tions of season and farm practice, and large crops are 
possible each year for a long period. 

Sandy soils, perhaps, are the best examples of soils of 
low natural strength ; in these the purely mechanical con- 
stituents are in great excess, no considerable quantity of 
dormant or reserve substances exist, and the constituents 
made active are only sufficient for minimum annual yields. 

Texture of Soils. — Another point to be taken into 
consideration, when studying the composition of a soil, 
is the power it possesses of absorbing and retaining such 
constituents as may become active. This characteristic 
of a soil is termed its " texture ; " and it has not only a 
bearing upon the adaptability of the soil to the growth 
of plants, but also exercises a decided influence upon 
such growth. 

Soil so open in texture as to freely admit the circula- 
tion of water is more liable to be depleted in its active 
constituents than a soil which is close in texture, and 
retains for a considerable time the water Avhich falls 
upon it. 



COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 37 

The nature of the subsoil is also an important consid- 
eration. If the soil rests immediately upon a rock, or 
upon sandj it will be found to dry out much more rapidly 
than if it rests upon a clay subsoil. In the first place, the 
water passes rapidly beyond the reach of the roots, and 
cannot readily get back ; in the second place, it does not 
percolate so rapidly, while at the same time it retains its 
connection with the surface. 

This point is very apparent to one who has observed 
the red shale soils in central New Jersey. They are 
reasonably rich in all forms of plant-food, yet those which 
lie directly upon the shale or rock are much less pro- 
ductive than those which lie upon a clayey subsoil. The 
shale permits a too free escape of water, and crops suffer 
more severely from drouth than those which lie upon a 
clayey subsoil. It is essential that water be freely mova- 
ble in soils, in order to properly prepare the food, as well 
as to carry it to the roots of plants, but it must be freely 
movable in all directions. 

Climate. — The climate is also a matter of importance : 
rainfall, temperature, location, all exert an influence in 
determining the value of a soil, and should be taken into 
consideration in connection with its chemical composition. 

The average rainfall may be sufficient ; but if it is not 
properly distributed throughout the growing season, nor- 
mal growth is impossible. The same is true of tempera- 
ture ; cold in harvest time is ruinous, though the normal 
temperature for the year may have been attained. 

Loss and Gain to Soil. — A soil, whether cultivated 
or not, is continually changing, the various causes which 
combine to form soils being ever at work to make them 



38 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

richer or poorer. If left to themselves, the constituents 
rendered soluble by air, moisture, and chemical action, 
as well as the finer particles of earth, are carried by 
rains in greater or less amounts into the streams and 
brooks. Certain of the soil constituents are, however, 
less liable to be lost through drainage than others; that 
is, soils do not exert the same retentive power for all 
constituents. 

The constituents of the greatest interest to the farmer 
are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime. Of 
these, nitrogen and lime form certain compounds that 
are extremely soluble and freely movable in the soil ; 
drainage waters are seldom free from traces of nitrates, 
and of chlorides of sodium and calcium (lime). 

On the other hand, ammonia, a compound containing 
nitrogen, and phosphoric acid and potash are seldom found 
under natural conditions in any considerable amounts in 
drainage waters. For these the soil possesses a strong 
retentive power, though they are not held so strongly as 
to be unavailable to plants. 

This power of soils is not only important in showing 
the probable loss or gain of fertility in uncultivated soils, 
but has a wide bearing upon their possible improvement. 
Phosphoric acid and potash particularly, when added to 
soils, are fixed, and remain until removed by the plants. 

Clay, humus, and lime are the ingredients in soils 
which exert the greatest influence in retaining the solu- 
ble phosphates, potash salts, and ammonia compounds. 

Absorptive Properties of Soils. — The property 
which a soil possesses of breaking up such compounds, 
and holding fast to the essential elements, is both physi- 



COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 39 

cal and chemical. The holding of such bases as potash, 
lime, etc., is due to the presence in the soil of what are 
termed simple silicates; these are capable of combining 
with other silicates to form double silicates. A silicate 
of alumina, for instance, will combine with a silicate 
of ammonia to form a double silicate of alumina and 
ammonia. All soils possess this absorbing power in 
some degree, though it belongs particularly to soils con- 
taining clay. 

Soils do not, however, possess an equal absorbing power 
for acids. Nitric acid is not absorbed, but is freely 
movable. The only acid of importance absorbed by the 
soil is phosphoric acid, which combines with lime, iron, 
and alumina, forming phosphates, — compounds of great 
importance in plant nutrition, which are not removed 
from the soil except through the growth of plants. 

This absorbing property of soils may be nicely illus- 
trated by filling a cylinder of suitable length with a good 
soil, and pouring upon it a dilute solution containing 
one or more bases, including potash and lime, and both 
nitric and phosphoric acid. An examination of the solu- 
tion which passes through will show the presence of nitric 
acid, and an absence, at least in any amount, of the potash 
and phosphoric acid. Good soils fix all of the essential 
constituents, except nitrogen when it is in the form of a 
nitrate. 

The farmer can reduce the losses due to drainage by 
careful management. The drainage waters contain least 
nitrates when crops are growing and well cultivated. 
This carrying away of plant-food constituents by the rain 
into the drains may be regarded, therefore, as a natural 



40 FIRST PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

loss to soils, and is greater or less according to the char- 
acter of the soil, and the treatment it receives. On the 
other hand, there is a gain in the fertility of soils due 
to natural causes. 

Eain carries to the soil appreciable amounts of nitric 
acid and ammonia, as well as certain solid substances, 
existing in the atmosphere. The gain from this source 
is greatest in the vicinity of cities, and least in the open 
country. The gain due to the action of water, heat, cold, 
and decaying vegetable matter has already been referred 
to in previous sections, though the changes taking place 
in vegetable matter require further notice. 

Nitrification. — Vegetable matter is the source of 
humus of soils, and the active principle of humus is 
nitrogen. The nitrogen in humus is combined with car- 
bon, and in this form it is not available to plants. In 
order to become most useful to them it must be changed 
into a nitrate, since plants take up their nitrogen chiefly 
in this form. This process is called '^ nitrification," and 
is caused by minute " organisms ^^ or '^ferments," which 
are present in all fertile soils. 

These ferments are most active in warm, moist, well- 
drained soils, when nitrification proceeds rapidly; they 
are not active when the temperature is lower than 41° F. 
or higher than 131° F. In winter, in temperate climates, 
nitrification practically ceases altogether, while in sum- 
mer it proceeds most rapidly. As soon as nitric acid is 
formed by this process, it immediatel}^ combines with 
some base, preferably lime ; hence, if drainage is allowed, 
the loss of nitrates is always accompanied by a loss of 
lime. 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS. 41 



CHAPTER IV. 
The Improvement of Soils. 

The improvement of soils may be regarded as of two 
kinds, — first physical, and second chemical ; though this 
classification is not always well defined. Frequently an 
improvement in the physical character of soils is also 
accompanied by important chemical changes. The im- 
provement of soils due to natural causes, while consider- 
able in the aggregate, is insignificant, in point of time, 
compared with that which may be secured by the farmer 
through artificial means. The true aim of the farmer 
should be to bring the soil into a condition to produce 
crops which are well ada]_3ted to his location, and which 
are as large as the average conditions of climate and 
season will permit. 

The first point to determine is whether the land is 
worth improving ; the kind of crops that can be raised, and 
their probable market value, must guide in this respect. 

Physical Imperfection. — One of the chief imperfec- 
tions in natural soils, aside from their chemical character, 
is in respect to water ; they contain too much or too 
little. If too much, the imperfections may be in many 
cases corrected by proper drainage ; if too little, by 
adding water or such materials as may increase the 
absorbing and retaining power of soil for water. 



42 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

The earth may be compared to a sponge full of water, 
which rises towards the surface with heavy rainfalls, and 
falls below as evaporation and percolation proceed. 

Drainage. — If a hole dug into the soil partly fills 
with water, and remains with slight fluctuations through 
the season, the water contained in it is called "bottom 
water," and the point to which it rises is called the 
" water level." If the water level is constantly near 
the surface, the soil is liable to be too wet 5 for most 
plants suffer if their roots are immersed for any length 
of time in stagnant water. Plants need air, both for 
root and branch. Too much water in a soil prevents 
the circulation of air, and also keeps it too cold for 
most crops ; the cranberry and rice plants are prominent 
exceptions to this rule. The soil may also be too wet, 
even when the water level is deep into the earth, by 
reason of absorbing too much of the rain that falls upon 
it. Drainage corrects in the first case by lowering the 
water level, and in the second by permitting a more 
rapid passage of water through the soil. 

Land well drained is improved, not only by the removal 
of water from it, but because the more rapid diffusion 
and passage of the water through the soil carry the air 
and warmth to lower levels, which are, as has already 
been shown, important factors in making soil constitu- 
ents soluble, and thus increasing the power of plants 
to secure food. 

In too many cases half-developed crops are secured 
year after year upon land, which, if properly drained, 
would be capable of maximum production. Where springs 
occur, and where the land is composed of clay overlying 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS. 43 

clay subsoils, drainage usually results in great improve- 
ment and profit to the owner. 

Methods of Drainage. — The efficiency of drains de- 
pends upon the free passage of water through them. They 
should always lead to the lowest portion of the field; if 
the land is level, they must be gradually sloped — one 
foot in five hundred will furnish sufficient grade for the 
flow of water. On a slope, the drains may be laid at a 
uniform depth from the surface ; the main drain should 
always occupy the lowest part of the field. 

The depth of drains and their distance from each other 
are governed by the character of the land. On light, open 
soils, they should be deeper and farther apart; on heavy 
land they should be nearer to the surface and to one 
another. The mouth of the drain should be well pro- 
tected, and kept free from all obstructions. 

Irrigation. — When lands contain too little water irri- 
gation is frequently resorted to, though the best results 
from irrigation are attained on well-drained land. Irri- 
gation not only softens the land, thus making it more 
permeable for the roots of plants, but it is effective in 
dissolving the dormant constituents of soils. Large tracts 
of now barren land in the United States only require water 
to make them fruitful. 

The advantages of irrigation are, perhaps, most con- 
spicuous in the States of Colorado and California. In 
portions of the Eastern States crops are frequently ruined 
by a lack of water at the right time ; the irrigation of 
these areas is only a question of time. 

Claying and Sanding. — Further imperfections in 
the physical character of natural soils are also common. 



44 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGMCULTUBE. 

Sandy soils are improved when made more compact and 
tenacious ; this may be accomplished by adding clay, or 
organic matter, or both. Clay soils are improved as they 
are made more porous and open; this may be accom- 
plished, in part at least, by the addition of sand. Clay- 
ing and sanding are expensive processes, and are seldom 
resorted to in this country except in cranberry culture ; 
though in districts where clay marls are abundant, the 
same object is accomplished by the application of this 
material. Marling, however, materially improves their 
chemical character, because of the mineral constituents, 
potash, phosphoric acid, and lime, one or all of which 
may be contained in them. 

Green Manuring. — The addition of organic vegetable 
matter to soils, for the purpose of improving both their 
physical and chemical character, is readily accomplished 
by means of green manuring. The term " green manur- 
ing'^ is used when the crops themselves are plowed under 
in their green state. Any plant, of course, may serve for 
this purpose, though those most commonly used are red 
and crimson clover, cow pea, rye, and buckwheat. 

Plants most Useful. — Of these crops the clovers and 
pease are more useful than the others. Clovers, peas, 
beans, lupins, vetches, and a number of others of less 
importance, belong to a class of plants called "legumes," 
which have the power of securing nitrogen from the air, 
and can, therefore, make perfect growth under proper 
conditions without depending upon soil nitrogen. This 
function of the legumes has long been known by practi- 
cal farmers, but the method by which the nitrogen is 
obtained is a quite recent discovery. 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS. 45 

These plants have small, knotty growths, called '^ tuber- 
cles," on their roots, which are believed to be caused 
directly or indirectly by certain bacteria which are present 
in soils in which this class of plants are grown. Eecent 
experiments have shown, too, that soils which do not 
contain these bacteria may be inoculated by applying a 
light dressing of soil from a field in which the plants have 
previously grown to perfection, without direct applications 
of nitrogenous material. It is through these tubercles that 
the plants are supposed to gain free nitrogen from the 
atmosphere. Experiments have shown pretty clearly that, 
where they have been formed, the nitrogen in the crop is 
far greater than when they are absent. The fact that 
such is the case is sufficient for us to make use of this 
free source of the expensive element, nitrogen ; and it 
makes green manuring with these plants a most impor- 
tant part of farm work, not only as a means of securing 
nitrogen for the crop itself, but as a source of nitrogen 
for crops unable to secure it except from soil sources. 

An acre of an average crop of red or crimson clover, 
or of cow pease, will contain one hundred and fifty pounds 
of nitrogen, equivalent to that contained in fifteen tons of 
average stable manure. Rye or buckwheat, or other plants, 
which do not possess this power of securing nitrogen, are 
much less valuable for this purpose. 

Green manuring is particularly useful in the improve- 
ment of light lands usually deficient in humus, and in 
that method of farm practice where exhaustive crops are 
grown without the addition of yard manure or other forms 
of organic matter. By the use of the legumes as green 
manures, and the addition of materials furnishing the 



46 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

essential mineral constituents, potash, phosphoric acid, 
and lime, light lands may be rapidly improved and made 
very fertile, while lands used for growing vegetables or 
fruits may be kept in a high state of cultivation and 
in good mechanical condition, without the expenditure of 
money and labor for stable manure, now regarded as so 
essential by the majority of farmers. 

Rye and Buckwheat as Catch Crops. — Eye and 
buckwheat are of considerable advantage, even though they 
are able to secure their nitrogen only from soil sources, 
because their habits of growth permit them to be used as 
catch crops, or those not interfering with regular rotations. 

The addition of the vegetable carbonaceous matter 
which is contained in these crops is, of course, quite as 
advantageous as that contained in those having the special 
power of securing nitrogen ; though recent studies of 
crimson clover show it to be quite as well adapted for a 
catch crop as those already mentioned, thus limiting the 
usefulness as green manures of other crops than the 
clovers or legumes. 

Care in the Use of Green Manures. — The turning 
under of heavy crops of clover or rye in the summer, when 
the conditions are most favorable for rapid decay, namely, 
a high temperature, and an abundance of moisture, is some- 
times followed by unfavorable results. Whether this is 
due to the too great development of organic acids from the 
rapid decay of vegetable matter, as some believe, is not 
thoroughly established ; though it is known that where the 
soil contains sufficient lime, or when lime is added, the 
danger in this direction is very much reduced, or altogether 
obviated. 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS. 47 

Green Manures add no Minerals to the Soil. — It 

is observed, from the foregoing, that the use of green 
manures can add no minerals to the soil ; nevertheless, 
its chemical qualities are improved. In the first place, 
constituents existing in the soil, as well as in the subsoil, 
have been collected by the roots and stored in the whole 
plant, which, turned under, concentrate these constituents 
in the surface soil ; and, secondly, the constituents con- 
tained in combination with vegetable matter are readily 
given up again, because of the tendency of such sub- 
stances to decay. 

Improvement Due to Lime. — The addition of lime 
also improves the physical nature of soil. Upon sandy 
soils its effect is to fill up the openings, which makes 
them more adherent and more retentive of moisture, thus 
absorbing less heat during the day, and retaining more 
at night. On clay soils, the effect of lime is still more 
important; the fine particles are separated, and the soil 
made more open, porous, and friable ; air and water cir- 
culate more freely ; the soil is warmer and easier to work. 

Tillage. — Natural soils are further improved by til- 
lage. Tillage includes the operations of plowing, culti- 
vating, harrowing, rolling, etc., the result of which is to 
destroy weeds and foreign growths ; to subject larger 
portions of the soil to contact with air, thus increasing 
the tendency to decay ; and to pulverize the surface soil, 
and render it more absorptive and porous, and more favor- 
able for the germination of seeds, and for the penetration 
and activity of the fine roots. 

Methods of Plowing. — The methods followed in 
plowing vary with the conditions and character of the 



48 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

soil. It should be deep enough to include all of the 
surface soil, and the furrow should be turned in such a 
manner as to subject the largest surface to the action of 
the air. 

Narrow furrows thrown on edge expose the greatest 
surface area to the influence of the atmosphere, while 
a wide furrow, turned nearly flat, presents the least 
exposed surface. The former method is best adapted 
for heavy soils, rich in the dormant constituents, and 
the latter more useful where the object is rather the 
production of a good tilth or seed-bed. 

Proper plowing also greatly assists in surface drain- 
age. The distance between the ridges is called a land, and 
the narrower the land the better the drainage. Where 
the natural drainage is good, ridge plowing is not so 
important. On such lands level plowing is advisable; 
an even surface possesses many advantages in the culti- 
vating and harvesting of crops. 

As a rule, it is not well to bring the subsoil to the 
surface when the planting of the crop immediately fol- 
lows the plowing; though on alluvial soils this practice 
is often followed for the purpose of deepening the sur- 
face soils. 

Fall Plowing. — Fall plowing is useful in economiz- 
ing time in the spring, in improving heavy soils, and in 
destroying many injurious insects. Land plowed in the 
fall or very early spring is also better able to with- 
stand drouth than if plowed immediately preceding the 
planting of the crop, particularly if the drouth occurs early 
in the season. 

The gradual deepening of the soil is better accom- 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS. 49 

plished on average soils by deep fall plowing ; since a 
small quantity of subsoil, then brought to the surface, is 
greatly improved and mellowed by alternate freezing and 
thawing during the winter. 

The cultivation and harrowing of the soil before seed- 
ing in the spring should be deep and thorough ; all 
clods should be crushed, and the particles of soil made 
as fine as possible; the finer the soil is made the more 
food is made available, and the more moisture is re- 
tained. The seed-bed should be deep, clean, and moist, 
for the proper germination and growth of plants. 

Subsoil Plowing. — By subsoil plowing is meant the 
breaking up of the subsoil, without bringing it to the 
surface ; this is accomplished by a plow of special con- 
struction, following in the furrows made by a surface 
plow. Subsoil plowing is of great importance where the 
subsoil is hard and compact, and improves the soil, by 
making the movement of water easier, by admitting the 
free access of air, and the easy penetration of the roots 
of plants. 

Capillary Attraction. — Water escapes from the sur- 
face of soils by means of what is termed "capillary at- 
traction." That is, the interstices, or spaces, between the 
particles of soil serve as little tubes to conduct the 
water from the lower levels of soils to the surface, to 
supply that carried away by evaporation. The coarser 
the particles of soil and the more porous it is, the 
larger will be the openings, the less water w411 be ab- 
sorbed from the rains, and the more rapid the escape 
from the surface by evaporation into the atmosphere. 
In soils the particles of which are not too finely di- 



50 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

vided and too compact, the reverse is the case. The 
tubes and pores through which the water passes, if un- 
disturbed, admit of the rapid escape of water ; if dis- 
turbed, the evaporation is arrested. 

Tillage Conserves Moisture. — Cultivating, harrow- 
ing, and rolling disturb or break the connection of the 
pores with the surface, thus reducing the evaporation 
until the connection of the tubes with the surface is 
again established. The amount of water transpired by 
growing plants is enormous — from three to five hun- 
dred pounds for each pound of dry matter formed ; 
and its escape, other than through the plant, should be 
prevented as far as possible. 

Tillage also destroys weeds, which require for their 
growth quite as much plant-food and moisture as culti- 
vated plants. 

For cultivated crops frequent tillage is recommended in 
dry seasons, in order that the greatest possible amount 
of moisture may be retained where the feeding roots are 
located ; the dry, pulverized surface soil acts as a mulch 
or blanket, and diverts more of the moisture to the 
roots of the plant. Too deep cultivation in dry seasons 
frequently does more harm than good, unless, in the 
preparation of the seed-bed, the soil has been thor- 
oughly and deeply pulverized. 

Chemical Improvement. — Soils are improved chemi- 
cally by the addition of materials which contain constit- 
uents that are liable to be lacking, or which have the 
power of converting dormant into active constituents. In 
many cases both of these objects are accomplished at 
the same time. Materials containing nitrogen, phosphoric 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS. 51 

acid, and potash are usually regarded as belonging to the 
first class ; while lime itself, and materials containing 
lime, belong more particularly to the second class. Lime 
is one of the most useful agents of the farmer, and does 
not, as is commonly believed, have the tendency to ex- 
haust soils unduly, when its use is properly understood. 
Lime acts powerfully upon and hastens the decay of 
organic matter from both vegetable and animal sources, 
by virtue of which the nitrogen becomes more quickly 
available to plants, and, as already stated, lime also as- 
sists in the process of nitrification. Lime further aids 
in liberating potash from insoluble compounds in the soil, 
thus increasing the store of active plant-food ingredients ; 
it also promotes the formation of compounds with alu- 
mina, which have the power of retaining ammonia and 
potash. The direct effect of lime, as well as the other 
materials furnishing plant-food, will be discussed in de- 
tail in the chapter on manures. 



62 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 



CHAPTER V. 
Natural Manures. 

A MANURE is, in a broad sense, anything that aids or 
increases the production of farm crops. Manures may 
be direct in their effect, by adding to the actual plant- 
food in the soil, or indirect, by aiding the decay, and 
making active insoluble plant-food constituents in the soil. 

It was shown in previous chapters, that, of all of the 
constituents which plants need, but four were liable to 
be exhausted by any system of cropping; these were 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime. Direct ma- 
nures contain one or two or all of these constituents. Any- 
thing called a " direct manure," which does not contain 
one or more of these constituents, cannot add to the stock 
of true plant-food. 

Essential Fertilizing Elements. — Nitrogen, phos- 
phoric acid, potash, and lime are called the essential fer- 
tilizing elements, because they are more important in 
manures than the others that plants require ; and a direct 
manure is useful in proportion to the amount and avail- 
ability, or direct usefulness, of these constituents con- 
tained in it. 

Direct manures may also be indirect at the same time ; 
that is, they may contain materials which add no plant- 
food directly, but which act upon the soil constituents. 



NATURAL MANURES, 63 

Indirect manures are valuable in proportion to the 
effect which they have upon the soil constituents, and 
this effect may be due to both physical and chemical 
causes. Through this distinction, in reference to the 
action of manures, we are ready to classify them into 
natural manures and artificial manures. 

Natural Manures. — A natural manure is one which 
may be either direct or indirect, but which has been 
derived from natural sources, or, in other words, which 
has not undergone any specific treatment or manufac- 
ture. These include all vegetable and animal refuse of 
the farm and yard, also factory wastes, which contain 
one or more of the essential constituents. Natural ma- 
nures are as a rule bulky, and are low grade in the sense 
that they contain small amounts of the direct plant-food 
constituents. 

Farmyard manure is one of the most important and 
useful of the natural manures ; it is both a direct and 
an indirect manure : direct, in containing nitrogen, phos- 
phoric acid, potash, and lime, which are actual fertiliz- 
ing constituents; and indirect, in containing organic or 
vegetable matter, which aids in the improvement of the 
physical character of the soil. 

It is sometimes called a "general manure," because, 
as it contains all of the constituents of plant growth, it 
is liable to be generally useful on all soils. 

Farrayard Manure. — Yard manure varies in its 
composition according to the character of the animals 
producing it, and the quality of the food, and the object 
of feeding. Its composition is also influenced by the 
amount and kind of litter used, and its management after 



54 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

it is secured. The manure from young animals is less 
valuable than that made when the animals are full 
grown. 

Manure made from fattening animals is richer than 
that produced by dairy cows ; animals fed upon hay and 
straw furnish manure much less valuable than when the 
cereal grains constitute a part of the ration. 

Manure Produced by Different Animals. — Horse 
manure is richer in nitrogen, contains less water, and is 
less variable in composition than that obtained from cows. 
The manure made from animals consuming rich food is 
more liable to fermentation than that produced when 
they are fed upon bulky fodders or watery feeds. 

Horse manure is called a " hot manure " because of 
its tendency to hot fermentation; and is for this reason 
particularly useful for hot-beds, and for forcing early 
growth. Cow manure, on the other hand, is called a 
" cold manure,'' because less liable to fermentation. Sheep 
manure contains less water, and is richei* in the fertiliz- 
ing constituents than either horse or cow manure. Pig 
manure, while- quite as watery as cow manure, is richer 
in nitrogen. 

Composition of Stable Manure. — Manure from horse 
stables in large cities also varies considerably in compo- 
sition. It contains on the average seventy-five per cent, 
or fifteen hundred pounds per ton, of water, and twenty- 
five per cent, or five hundred pounds per ton, of dry 
matter, which contains all of the manurial ingredients. 
The water is of no particular value ; it simply increases 
the cost of handling. The dry matter consists of from 
ten to twelve per cent of ash, and from twelve to fif- 



NATURAL MANURES. 65 

teen per cent of organic matter. The ash contains from 
eight to ten pounds each of phosphoric acid and lime, 
and six to eight pounds of potash ; while the organic 
matter contains from eight to ten pounds, of nitrogen. 

Its indirect value, however, is often quite as great as, 
and frequently greater than, its direct value, — first, be- 
cause of its vegetable matter, which materially improves 
the absorbing and retaining power of soils ; and second, 
because of the lower forms of life, or bacteria, contained 
in it, which induce useful fermentations in the soil. 
Not including the lime, the average ton of city manure 
contains but twenty-eight pounds of actual fertilizer con- 
stituents. 

Solid a,nd Liquid Portions. — The nitrogen digested 
from the food, as well as a large part of the potash, is 
found in the liquid portions of the manure ; while the 
nitrogen in the undigested portions, as well as a large 
part of the phosphoric acid, is contained in the solid 
residue. The nitrogen in the urine is largely in the 
form of '^urea,'' a compound soluble in water, and is 
easily decomposed ; the potash is also soluble in water. 
These constituents are, therefore, the most active. 

Sources of Loss in Manures. — Manures are sus- 
ceptible to two direct sources of loss, the first of which 
is due to fermentation, which results in the loss of ni- 
trogen ; and the second is due to leaching, which may 
finally result in a loss of all the constituents, though it 
is confined largely to the soluble nitrogen and potash. 
By fermentation, the nitrogen in the manure is changed 
to ammonia, usually in the form of a carbonate, which 
is volatile, and escapes into the atmosj^here. 



56 FIRST PBINCIPLES OF AGBICULTUBE. 

Care of Manures. — Fermentation, causing loss, may 
be prevented by keeping the manure moist and well 
packed. The loss through leaching may be stopped if 
the passage of water through it is prevented. The best 
method to preserve it is to make it under cover, and in 
pits made water-tight; by such a method of shelter and 
protection the maximum amount of manurial value is 
obtained. The soluble constituents are prevented from 
being washed into the drain, and the loss of volatile 
compounds is reduced to a minimum. Where it is not 
practicable to have water-tight pits, it should be kept in 
yards that drain to the centre, plenty of absorbent used, 
and drainage from the roof not allowed to run in the 
yard ; and the product should be removed to the field as 
often as possible. 

Experiments conducted to determine the extent of the 
loss of valuable constituents due to improper fermenta- 
tion and to leaching have shown, that, under average 
conditions of season, the loss from exposure for six 
months will range from one-third to one-half of the total 
constituents ; this loss falls upon the most active forms, 
the constituents remaining in the manure after being sub- 
jected to such losses are the least active and directly 
useful. 

Manure Preservers. — The loss of ammonia, both in 
the stables and in manure pits, may also be prevented by 
the use of land plaster, of kainit, or of superphosphate, 
which has the power of fixing and retaining the vola- 
tile gases. A pound a day per grown animal, sprinkled 
around in ^he stable, is sufficient to attain the object. 
The same proportion and amount may be used on the 



NATURAL MANURES. 57 

manure heap. The value of this practice is, however, 
measured by the care of the manure afterward, since the 
fixed constituents are still liable to loss from leaching. 

The Improvement of Manures. — Manures are im- 
proved as they are reduced in bulk, and as the constit- 
uents are made available or directly useful ; this is 
accomplished by well-regulated fermentation, or rotting. 
By well-regulated fermentation is meant that which re- 
sults in the decay of organic matter with the least loss 
of nitrogen. The loss from fermentation is greatest 
when the manure lies in loose heaps, the access of air 
aiding the decay; the loss is least when it is packed 
and moist. The mixing of the manures of the various 
farm animals, hot and cold, also tends to reduce fermen- 
tation. 

If the fermentation becomes too active, great heat is 
developed, which causes the rapid escape of moisture; the 
manure is burned and has a whitish and mouldy appear- 
ance, — it is what is called ^' fire-fanged.'^ Under these 
circumstances there is frequently a loss of nitrogen. The 
'^ fire-f anging " may be prevented by keeping the heap 
moist. 

It is evident, therefore, that the improvement of 
manures, while it reduces bulk and increases availability 
of the fertilizing elements, requires care and labor. 
Whether such improvement will pay or not depends, 
first, upon the cost of labor, and second, upon the object 
of use of the manure. Where labor is expensive, and 
the manure is used for the growing of such gross-feed- 
ing field crops as corn, the advantages derived are least. 
When the handling can be performed by the regular 



58 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

labor of the farm, and where the manure is applied to 
garden or quick-growing crops, the advantages of such 
improvement are greatest. 

On the whole, however, it is safe to estimate that the 
least labor necessary to get the manure from the animal 
to the field is the best policy ; that is, while there may 
be loss, and while the constituents may not be so active, 
still, the financial results attained are, because of the 
saving of labor, quite as good. 

There is another advantage in the careful fermentation 
of manures which should not be overlooked, particularly 
on soils poor in vegetable matter ; that is, the development 
of useful bacteria, the work of which has been already 
described. What has been said in reference to yard 
manure is also true for other manures of the farm. 

Poultry Manure. — This is richer in all of the essen- 
tial elements than any other natural manure of the 
farm. It contains less water, and is not so liable to hot 
fermentation if kept moist. 

Application of Yard Manure. — Two points should 
be kept in mind in the application of yard manures, — 
first, that they are essentially nitrogenous products ; and 
second, that they are particularly valuable because of 
the useful ferments contained in them. If too much is 
added at one time, a loss of nitrogen is liable to follow, 
and the benefits derived from the ferments are limited 
to small areas. The manure of the farm should be 
distributed as far as possible, and supplemented by 
more concentrated materials. Coarse manures are better 
adapted for heavy lands, while those which are well 
rotted are more useful on light soils. 



NATURAL 3fANUBES. 59 

Coraposts. — In addition to the yard manure, there 
are about most farms wastes of considerable importance, 
weeds, grasses, and coarse growths of any kind, which 
all contain greater or less amounts of the manurial con- 
stituents. These should be carefully utilized, and may 
be profitably used as absorbents in the barnyard. When 
this method is adopted, the weeds should be cut before 
they have matured, or they furnish an excellent means 
of transmitting foul seeds. These waste products may 
also be used in making what are called "composts.'^ 
These, of course, differ according to the conditions of 
the farmer. Where peat or muck is available, they 
are more advantageous than where such products are 
not at hand. The main object of the compost heap is 
to cause a more rapid decay of such products, and without 
the loss of essential constituents. 

A good compost heap may be made by placing a layer 
of manure, then a layer of the weeds or waste products 
of any kind, then a layer of lime or ashes, the whole 
well moistened, and the order repeated until all of the 
products are used. The manure starts fermentation, the 
lime aids in the rotting, as well as to prevent acidity 
and to keep the heap alkaline, and the moisture pre- 
vents too hot fermentation. By careful management 
^destructive fermentation is prevented, the bulk is very 
materially reduced, and the quality of the constituents 
greatly improved. The chief difficulty in the making 
of composts, as well as with other methods used in the 
improvement of manures, is the expense of labor. 

It pays to take good care of, and to save, manurial 
products, and to see to it that wastes are reduced, and 



60 FIRST PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

the improvement of the quality of the constituents by the 
methods suggested is frequently of considerable financial 
advantage. 

Muck, or Peat. — On many farms there are low, wet 
places where the conditions are favorable for the collec- 
tion of partially decayed vegetable matter. The mate- 
rial thus formed is called "muck," or "peat." The 
thickness of the deposit and its character depend upon 
the time during which it has been formed, and the 
character of the climate. 

Muck is used mainly as a source of humus, and as 
an absorbent for use in stables or yards. Fresh muck 
contains on the average seventy-five per cent of water, 
three-tenths per cent of nitrogen, and traces of potash, 
phosphoric acid, and lime. Air-dry muck contains on 
the average twenty-one per cent of water, one and one- 
third per cent of nitrogen, one-tenth per cent each of 
phosphoric acid and potash, and nine-tenths per cent of 
lime. The value of the muck as a source of humus is 
measured by its content of nitrogen, while its value as 
an absorbent depends upon its content of organic matter. 
The usefulness of muck for either of these purposes is 
further modified by the labor necessary to secure it in a 
dried condition. 

The usual method of procuring it is to throw it out 
of the bed into heaps, and allow it to dry before it is 
used either upon the fields or in the stables. Where a 
muck bed exists upon a farm, it should first be studied 
in reference to its possible drainage. If it can be drained, 
it is liable to prove more useful where it lies than for 
the other purposes mentioned ; since soils rich in peaty 



NATURAL MANURES. 61 

matter are particularly valuable, when properly nianaged, 
for growing onions, celery, and potatoes. Large areas of 
peaty soils in this country, that have been properly 
drained, are now devoted to these crops ; before draining 
they were absolutely valueless. 

In addition to the natural farm wastes, farmers fre- 
quently have easy access to certain factory wastes. These 
may be divided into two classes, nitrogenous and potassic. 
Of the nitrogenous materials, wool and hair wastes are 
probably the most important. These are very rich in 
nitrogen ; both are, however, usually mixed with other 
materials, and vary widely in their composition. 

"Wool Waste. — Wool waste contains on an average 
ten per cent of water, five and one-half per cent of nitro- 
gen, one per cent of phosphoric acid, and two per cent 
of potash. 

Hair Waste. — An average analysis of hair waste, as 
determined at the New Jersey Experiment Station, shows 
it to contain thirty-two per cent of water, seven and two- 
tenths per cent of nitrogen, and eight-tenths per cent of 
phosphoric acid. 

Felt Waste. — Felt waste is similar to wool waste 
in that its nitrogen is contained in the wool, though 
variable in composition on account of the varying pro- 
portions of cotton used in its manufacture. Analyses 
show it to contain about eight per cent of nitrogen. 

Leather Meal. — Leather meal is a product found in 
considerable quantities in towns where the manufacture 
of shoes is an industry. It contains on the average ten 
per cent of water, and seven of nitrogen. The nitrogen 
in the leather meal is even less available tha.n in the 



62 FIRST PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTUBE, 

other products mentioned, because the leather has passed 
through a process, the very purpose of which was to make 
it less liable to decay. 

The purchase of these materials is only advisable when 
they can be procured very cheaply. Their application is 
useful when the object is gradual increase in fertility, 
rather than immediate increase in crop. Hair wastes 
have been found advantageous in the growing of ber- 
ries, hops, and other slow-growing crops, while wool and 
leather have materially improved meadows and perma- 
nent pastures. The nitrogen in these materials is im- 
proved in form, and made more quickly available, when 
composted, with manure. 

Wood- Ashes. — Of the potassic manures, unleached 
wood-ashes are the most useful. The pure ashes from 
the different varieties of wood vary in composition ; as 
a rule, the softer woods contain less, and the hard woods 
more, potash, the range being from sixteen to forty per 
cent. 

Ashes also contain lime in large amounts, while phos- 
phoric acid is contained in much smaller quantities. 
Wood-ashes, as usually gathered for market, however, con- 
tain very considerable portions of moisture, dirt, etc., 
which cause a variability in composition not due to the 
character of the woods from which they are derived. 
The average analysis of commercial wood-ashes shows 
them to contain less than six per cent of potash, two 
per cent of phosphoric acid, and thirty-two per cent of 
lime. Leached wood-ashes contain on the average thirty 
per cent of moisture, one and one-tenth per cent of pot- 
ash, one and one-half per cent of phosphoric acid, and 
twenty-nine per cent of lime. 



NATURAL MANURES. 63 

Ashes are probably one of the best sources of potash 
that we have, so far as its form and combination are 
concerned, being in a very fine state of division, and in 
such a form as to be immediately available to plants. 
Ashes also have a very favorable physical effect upon 
soils, the lime present, of course, aiding in this respect. 
Canada is now the main source of wood-ashes, the sub- 
stitution of coal for wood making the supply in this 
country for commercial purposes very limited. Owing 
to the variability of this product, it should always be 
bought subject to analysis, and to a definite price per 
pound for the actual constituents contained in it ; which 
should not be greater than the price at which the same 
constituents could be purchased in other quickly available 
forms. 

Marl. — Marl may contain one or more of the constit- 
uents, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime. Shell marls 
are usually very rich in lime, but contain only traces of 
phosphoric acid and potash. The green sand marls of 
New Jersey often contain very considerable amounts 
of phosphoric acid and potash, though they vary widely 
in composition. They contain on the average two and 
two-tenths per cent of phosphoric acid, four and seven- 
tenths per cent of potash, and two and nine-tenths per 
cent of lime. These constituents, particularly the potash, 
are, as a rule, slowly available. 

Marl, however, is an important amendment to soils, 
not only because of its content of mineral constituents, 
but because these constituents are associated with pro- 
ducts that have a very favorable mechanical effect upon 
soils. Large areas of land in the State of New Jersey 



64 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

formerly unproductive, chiefly because of physical imper- 
fections, have been made very productive mainly through 
the application of marl. 

The use of marl is now less general than when the 
fertilizing constituents from artificial sources were dearer, 
and when the labor of the farm was more abundant and 
cheaper. The quicker effect of more soluble fertilizer 
constituents has had an influence in reducing the use of 
marl where quick returns are desirable. Where farmers 
have deposits upon their own farms, or within short dis- 
tances of them, and can secure it at a low price per ton, 
it is a desirable method of improving land. 

The results from the use of marl are frequently due 
quite as much to the improvement given to the physical 
condition of soils as to the increase in fertility furnished 
by the essential mineral constituents. Marls may be 
carted and spread upon the land when other work of 
the farm is not pressing, thus making it possible to get 
a considerable addition of fertility at a small expense. 

Lime. — Lime, while an essential constituent of plants, 
is usually more abundant in soils than the other mineral 
constituents, phosphoric acid and potash. It is, how- 
ever, regarded as a direct source of plant-food in a great 
many cases, though its greatest value lies in its favorable 
action upon soils. This action is both physical and 
chemical, and has already been discussed in a previous 
chapter. 

Lime, as is it generally understood, is an oxide of cal- 
cium, and is produced by burning limestone, or carbonate 
of lime. The lime loses the carbonic acid when burned in 
the kilns, and the oxide of lime remains behind ; this is 



NATURAL MANURES. 65 

usually termed '^ quicklime.'' The quicklime, before it is 
applied to the soil, is usually slaked j this is done by 
adding water, which the lime absorbs, and falls to a pow- 
der. Slaked lime, also called caustic lime, is a calcium 
hydrate. 

The more completely limestone is burned, the better 
the quicklime, and the more completely it slakes. We 
have, when we speak of lime, three forms : limestone, 
quicklime, or burned lime, and slaked lime, each differing 
from the other in composition. 

Quicklime absorbs moisture, and slakes when exposed 
to the atmosphere. Lime thus slaked is called ^^ air- 
slaked lime," and is usually less completely changed to 
a hydrate than when water is added. Quicklime also 
absorbs carbonic acid from the air, and changes back to 
the limestone form. Lime in the carbonated form, if 
finely pulverized, is better for liming light lands than 
the caustic lime ; for heavy lands, caustic is preferable 
to the carbonate. 

What is termed " marble lime " is made from pure 
limestone. What are called ^' limestones " frequently 
contain considerable magnesia, in which case they are 
termed ^' magnesian limestones." The larger number of 
the limestones of New Jersey are of this class ; they 
contain from fifty to sixty per cent of calcium oxide, 
and thirty per cent or over of oxide of magnesia. 

Oyster shells are nearly pure carbonate of lime ; oyster- 
shell lime, though containing no magnesia, is usually 
mixed with more or less dirt and other impurities, and 
is therefore not as rich in lime as that derived from 
pure limestone. 



66 FIRST riilNCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

Gas-Lime. — The lime from gas-works is also fre- 
quently used as manure ; in these works quicklime is 
used for removing the impurities from the gas. Gas- 
lime, therefore, varies considerably in composition, and 
consists really of a mixture of slaked lime, or calcium 
hydrate, and carbonate of lime, together with sulphides 
and sulphites of lime. These last are injurious to plant 
life, and gas-lime should be applied long before the crop 
is planted, or at least exposed to the air some time 
before its application ; the action of air converts the 
poisonous substances in it into non-injurious products. 
Gas-lime contains on an average forty per cent of cal- 
cium oxide. 

Gypsum or Land Plaster. — Gypsum is a sulphate 
of lime containing water in combination. Pure gypsum 
contains thirty-two and one-half per cent of lime, forty- 
six and one-half per cent of sulphuric acid, and twenty- 
one per cent of water. 

Plaster of Paris is prepared from pure gypsum by 
burning, which drives off the water it contains. Gyp- 
sum, like other forms of lime, furnishes directly the 
element calcium, and also exerts a favorable solvent 
effect upon the soil. It was formerly used in large quan- 
tities, particularly for clover; and it is believed that its 
favorable effect was due, not so much to the direct addi- 
tion of lime, as to its action upon insoluble potash com- 
pounds in the soil, in setting free potash. Thus the 
application of plaster caused an increase in crop because 
of the potash made available. 

We have in the Eastern States two main sources of 
gypsum, namely, Nova Scotia and Cayuga, N.Y. Nova 



NATURAL MANURES. 67 

Scotia plaster is purer than that obtained from New 
York. The New York plaster, however, frequently con- 
tains appreciable amounts of phosphoric acid. 

Salt. — Common salt is sometimes used as a manure. 
It supplies no essential plant-food constituents ; and its 
value is still a disputed point, though it is admitted 
that, where its use is favorable, it is due to indirect 
action in aiding the decomposition of animal and vege- 
table matter, increasing the absorbing power of soils, and, 
by its reaction with lime, acting as a solvent for phos- 
phates. Salt is frequently applied in connection with 
nitrate of soda for wheat crops, to prevent a too rapid 
growth of straw. 

The Application of Lime. — The quantity of lime to 
be applied may vary according to circumstances ; heavy 
lands, rich in organic matter, may receive more, and 
lighter lands, less. The usual amount in the Eastern 
States, on average land, ranges from one to three tons 
of quicklime per acre. This is applied once in six or 
seven years, the application of small quantities being 
frequently more useful than large quantites applied at 
wider intervals. Lime should be applied on the surface, 
as its tendency is to work into the soil, and gradually 
get below the surface soil. The time of application, 
also, varies with the kind of crop and the character 
of the soil. For pasture-lands or mowing-fields, the 
early spring or fall are the best seasons to apply it. 
It should never be used directly with commercial fertil- 
izers containing ammonia and soluble phosphoric acid, 
as it sets free the ammonia, and reduces the solubility 
of the phosphates. 



FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 



CHAPTER yi. 
Artificial and Concentrated Manures; Nitrogenous Materials. 

As farm lands become exhausted of tlieir essential 
plant-food constituents by the continual sale of crops, 
the manures available to the farmer, both from the 
natural wastes of the farm and from such materials as 
lime, ashes, etc., are often insulhcient to keep up their 
original fertility. At the present time, too, the tendency 
of farming in this country, especially in the Eastern 
States, and in the vicinity of large cities, is toward 
special crop farming, which requires that soils should 
be abundantly supplied with active plant-food. J 

These conditions have caused a rapid development of 
the sources of supply of suitable materials that furnish 
the constituents liable to be lacking, or contained in too 
small amounts, in the soil ; viz., nitrogen, phosphoric acid, 
and potash. 

Classes of Materials. — These materials are divided 
into three distinct classes, — namely, nitrogenous, furnish- 
ing nitrogen ; phosphatic, furnishing phosphoric acid ; and 
potassic, furnishing potash. 

Manures made from these materials are called '^ arti- 
ficial," " concentrated," or " commercial." They differ 
from the natural manures mainly in being more con- 
centrated, though frequently the constituents in them 



ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 69 

are more immediately available to the plant. The manu- 
rial elements, if in a form in which plants can use 
them, are quite as much actual plant-food when contained 
in these materials as when furnished by the more familiar 
natural manures. 

Natural manurial products, or homemade materials, 
are used in their original state or applied directly to the 
soil. Artificial products, as a rule, require treatment 
previous to their use. 

Nitrogen. — Nitrogen is the most costly element of 
manures. It is absolutely essential to all organized life, 
whether animal or vegetable ; it is the basis of the al- 
buminoids of plants, the casein of milk, and the fibrin 
of blood. Nitrogen occurs in three forms, and all these 
forms exist as commercial manure products. The form 
means its combination with other chemical elements; 
namely, nitrogen as nitrates, nitrogen as ammonia, and 
nitrogen as organic matter. 

Forms of Nitrogen. — Nitrogen in the form of a 
nitrate means its combination with oxygen in such pro- 
portions as to form nitric acid, united with a base like 
soda or potash; thus, we have nitrates of soda, potash, 
lime, etc. 

Nitrogen as ammonia means its combination with 
hydrogen in such proportion as to form ammonia. Am- 
monia gas consists of one part of nitrogen and three 
of hydrogen. This gas readily combines with various 
acids, as sulphuric, nitric, etc., to form ammonia salts. 

Nitrogen in the form of organic matter means its com- 
bination with the chemical constituents, carbon, hydrogen, 
and oxygen, either as animal or vegetable substances. 



70 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

A large number of materials, differing widely in their 
character and composition, contain nitrogen in this form. 

Plants that derive their nitrogen from the soil absorb 
it chiefly in the form of a nitrate; when nitrogen is 
applied in this form, no changes are required to enable 
it to serve as a direct food. Materials furnishing nitrates 
are, therefore, regarded as of the greatest importance in 
the manufacture of commercial manures. 

Ammonia, while it does nourish plants directly, usually 
undergoes a change into nitrate first, though this change 
proceeds rapidly when the conditions mentioned as favor- 
able for nitrification are present. As a rule, therefore, 
an appreciable time does elapse before all the nitrogen 
in ammonia serves as plant-food. 

Nitrogen in organic forms is first changed by the 
decay or rotting of the substance into ammonia, and the 
ammonia is then changed into a nitrate. The rapidity 
of this decay depends both upon the character of the 
substance itself, and upon its physical form and its 
mechanical conditions or fineness of division. The 
tougher and more dense the substance, and the coarser 
the particles, the longer the time required to rot, and 
the more slowly available as nitrogenous food. The rapid- 
ity with which nitrogen may become useful as food to 
plants is, therefore, determined by its chemical form. 

Nitrates, since they are immediately useful to the 
plant, may all be absorbed by the crop upon which they 
are applied, while ammonia salts and organic nitrogen 
may be only partially used, because the necessary changes 
for them to undergo may not take place completely 
before the plant is fully matured. 



ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 71 

The different results obtained from the use of the 
different forms of nitrogen determine what is called its 
"agricultural value/' or the improvement it causes in 
the growth of the plant. 

This agricultural value, which is true of any manure, 
is, too, separate and distinct from the commercial value, 
or cost in market ; which is determined by market and 
trade conditions, as cost of production, transportation, 
selling, and the demand for it in other industries. It 
is for this reason that the best forms of plant-food may, 
and frequently do, cost less per pound of the actual 
ingredient than when furnished by other more slowly 
available, and less directly useful, forms. 

Nitrate of Soda. — Nitrate of soda, also called Chile 
saltpetre, is the chief source from which nitrogen as a 
nitrate is secured for manurial purposes. It possesses 
chemical and physical properties which distinguish it 
from all other materials ; it is a salt with a definite 
chemical composition. When pure it contains sixteen 
and forty-seven hundredths per cent of nitrogen. 

Vast natural deposits of the crude nitrate salts occur 
in the rainless districts of South America, though mainly 
in Chile. The crude salts are relatively poor, and also 
variable in their content of nitrogen ; hence before ship- 
ment they are purified by dissolving in water and recrys- 
tallizing, the impurities remaining being chiefly water 
and ordinary salt. 

The commercial product is quite pure, containing on 
the average sixteen per cent of nitrogen. It resembles 
in appearance ordinary salt, though the use of salt as 
an adulterant has not been practised to any extent in 



72 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

this country. It is completely soluble in water, diffuses 
readily throughout the soil, and, since it forms no in- 
soluble compound with soil constituents, is liable to be 
washed into the lower layers of the soil, and finally into 
the drains, if applied in the fall of the year, or in too 
large quantities. It is very beneficial for early and 
quick-growing crops, particularly upon light sandy soils, 
because it is ready for use as soon as applied. 

The soda with which the nitrate is combined does not 
possess any value as a plant-food constituent, though 
it is believed to exert a beneficial effect upon the phys- 
ical character of soils. This value is not taken into 
account in commercial transactions. 

The use of nitrate is rapidly increasing where its ad- 
vantages are well known. 

Nitrate of potash, or saltpetre, is another nitrate salt 
used to some extent, though its cost of production is 
too great to admit of its competition with the nitrate 
of soda. It is a concentrated product, and furnishes 
potash in addition to the nitrogen. 

Sulphate of Ammonia. — Ammonia for fertilizing 
purposes is secured almost entirely from sulphate of am- 
monia, which is another chemical salt of definite com- 
position, and is one of the most concentrated forms in 
which nitrogen occurs. It contains, when pure, twenty- 
one and two-tenths per cent of nitrogen. It is derived 
chiefly as a by-product from the manufacture of gas by 
the dry distillation of coal, and is also secured in smaller 
quantities in the manufacture of bone-black for sugar re- 
fineries, and in the distillation of refuse animal matter. 

The nitrogen contained in these products is, by the 



ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 73 

process of distillation, viz., in the absence of air, driven 
off in the form of ammonia gas, which is conducted 
into receptacles containing sulphuric acid, which fixes 
the ammonia in the form of a sulphate. This is a 
crude product, and is usually dissolved, recrystallized, 
and purified, and is then reasonably uniform in compo- 
sition, and contains on the average twenty and one-half 
per cent of nitrogen. When sold without this method of 
purification, it is called "brown sulphate of ammonia;" 
this is more variable in composition, with moisture, and 
insoluble and oily matters as impurities. Brown sulphate 
often contains less than eighteen per cent of nitrogen. 
Sulphate of ammonia, while freely soluble in water, is 
readily absorbed by the soil, and may be applied in the 
fall without danger of serious loss, and is, next to ni- 
trate of soda, one of the best forms of nitrogen for 
fertilizing purposes. It is a particularly useful form on 
clay and clay loam soils. 

Nitrates and ammonia salts possess two chief advan- 
tages ; viz., solubility, hence ease of distribution in the 
soil, and availability, or quick usefulness to the plant. 

The cost per pound of nitrogen in the form of am- 
monia is usually greater than for the nitrate of soda, 
because of the comparatively limited supply, and be- 
cause more largely used in the arts. 

Organic Nitrogen. — Organic nitrogen is obtained 
from a wide variety of sources, and is composed of both 
animal and vegetable matter. The commercial materi- 
als, from whatever source derived, unlike the salts men- 
tioned, are not definite chemical compounds ; those of 
the same name, even, vary in their composition, and 



74 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

also in their agricultural value or usefulness to plants, 
largely according to their method of preparation for 
market. 

Dried blood, for instance, is rich in nitrogen when 
carefully prepared, though commercial samples show 
wide variations in composition, and in the quality of 
the nitrogen. A pound of nitrogen, therefore, may have 
a very different value in one sample than in another, 
under uniform conditions of use, while under the same 
conditions of use a pound of nitrogen in the form of 
nitrate is equally valuable from whatever source de- 
rived. 

Materials containing organic nitrogen are not soluble 
in water, and the nitrogen is not immediately available 
to plants. Their value as a source of this element is, 
therefore, measured by conditions which favor the rapid 
change of their nitrogen into soluble and available forms. 
The first condition is fineness of division, which permits 
of a more even distribution, and the exposing of a 
larger surface area to the action of the agencies in the 
soil and air; and the second is the physical character 
of the material itself. If it is hard and dense, decay 
will be slower, since the processes which cause it are 
resisted; if soft and porous, the rotting is more rapid, 
because the agencies which cause it are encouraged to 
act. 

Dried Blood. — Dried blood is one of the most valua- 
ble sources of organic nitrogen. Its fineness of division 
permits of its easy and uniform distribution, and its 
physical character is such as to encourage rapid decay 
under suitable conditions. 



ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 75 

What is called " high-grade blood " is red in color, and 
is quite "uniform in composition, ranging from twelve to 
fourteen per cent of nitrogen. This form of blood is 
used largely in the arts, hence the supply for manurial 
purposes is limited : lower grades are in greater supply ; 
these are darker in color, vary widely in composition 
and physical character, and frequently contain, as im- 
purities, moisture, hair, bone, etc. ; the two latter, to be 
sure, contain nitrogen, but in forms less useful than in 
the blood. 

Dried Meat, or Azotine. — This material is proba- 
bly, next to blood, the most important source of organic 
nitrogen. It is obtained by separating the meat from 
the bones, extracting the fat by steaming or solvents, 
and drying and grinding into powder. It is usually in 
excellent mechanical condition, and when free from bone 
is quite uniform in composition, containing on the aver- 
age twelve per cent of nitrogen. 

Tankage. — Tankage is the dried refuse from slaughter- 
houses and butcher-shops, and is composed of various 
wastes — as offal, skin, bone, hair, and meat ; it contains 
both nitrogen and phosphoric acid, though usually classed 
as a nitrogenous product. 

The source from which this material is derived indicates 
at once that it must be variable in composition ; it shows 
wide ranges in its content of both nitrogen and phosphoric 
acid. These variations in composition are largely due to 
the quantity of bone contained in it. The larger the pro- 
portion of bone, the lower the percentage of nitrogen, and 
the smaller the proportion of bone, the higher the content 
of nitrogen. What is called "concentrated tankage" is 



76 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

made up more largely of extractive animal matter, and 
is more uniform in composition, and much richer in 
nitrogen. 

The lack of uniformity in both the chemical composition 
and physical character of tankage, makes it impossible to 
give to it a distinct position as a fertilizing product, since 
the results derived from its use under uniform conditions 
in other respects must naturally be variable. 

Dried Fish. — Dried fish was formerly an important 
and considerable source of organic nitrogen. It is derived 
mainly from the waste resulting from the extraction of 
the oil from the menhaden, a fish not used for food, though 
valuable for this purpose. The waste from fish-canning 
establishments also furnishes a considerable amount of 
this product. 

The '' menhaden pomace " is rich in quickly available 
nitrogen, and also contains considerable phosphoric acid, 
derived from the bone contained in it; it is reasonably 
uniform in composition. The waste from the canneries 
contains more of the skin and bone, and is more variable 
in composition. Aside from the source from which it is 
derived, the chief cause of variability in composition is the 
content of water. Frequently, too, acid is used to prevent 
decomposition, which, while useful in making the constitu- 
ents more available, renders the product less concentrated 
and less easily dried. Well-dried samples contain on the 
average seven to eight per cent of nitrogen, and the same 
of phosphoric acid. Finely ground, it decays rapidly in 
the soil, and is highly regarded as a manure. 

Fish was one of the first materials used as a fertilizer. 
The custom in this country in early times, of using a fish 



ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 77 

in each hill of corn, is still practised in regions near the 
sea where they are easily procured. 

Leather Meal. — This material, already described in a 
previous chapter, is frequently treated by various proces- 
ses, in order to render its nitrogen more available. Chief 
among these are heating to a high temperature, and steam- 
ing, which change its original form and structure, making 
it mealy and crumbly. Methods of treating with borax 
and benzine, and dissolving in sulphuric acid, are also 
practised. Experiments have shown that all of these 
processes aid materially in improving the quality of the 
nitrogen in this product. 

Horn and Hoof Meal. — These materials are rich in 
nitrogen, and are quite uniform in composition, though in 
their original condition they are slow to decay. They 
are frequently treated in somewhat the same manner as 
leather, in order to render the constituent nitrogen more 
directly available to plants. 

Thus, while these products, containing a high content of 
nitrogen in very slowly available forms, do have some value, 
it is doubtful whether their use, either in their original or 
treated form, is advisable, except when they can be pur- 
chased at a much lower price per pound than in forms 
of known value. 

Cottonseed Meal. — A few vegetable waste products 
contain sufficient nitrogen to warrant their use as concen- 
trated manures. Among these cottonseed meal is probably 
used to the greatest extent. The cottonseed is first hulled, 
ground and steamed, and the oil extracted. It is quite 
uniform in its composition, and contains on the average 
six and eight-tenths per cent of nitrogen. Its value as 



78 ■ FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

a food for stock, however, limits its use as a fertilizer 
at points distant from place of production. It is fine and 
dry, and decays rapidly in the soil, and is regarded as one 
of the best forms of organic nitrogen. 

Castor Pomace. — Castor pomace is similar to cotton- 
seed meal, both in its composition and in the quality of its 
nitrogen. It is the refuse castor bean after the oil has 
been extracted. It is not an important source of organic 
nitrogen, though practically the whole product is used as 
a manure. 

Organic Nitrogenous Materials are Variable. — As 
has been indicated, organic nitrogenous materials are, on 
the whole, variable products, both in respect to their 
content of nitrogen, and to its availability. Those that 
are uniform in respect to their composition are more valu- 
able than the others, since their availability may be tested, 
and an average arrived at. 

Those high-grade products, like dried blood, azotine, 
dried fish, and cottonseed meal, which are fairly uniform 
in these respects, show, both by chemical and field tests, 
a high percentage of availability, which does not vary 
greatly with different samples ; while those like tankage 
sometimes show a high and sometimes a low availability, 
because of the lack of uniformity in the proportions of 
their component parts. 

The Use of Nitrogen. — Great care should be exercised 
in the purchase and use of nitrogen, first, because it is an 
expensive element ; and second, because when it is in a form 
useful to plants it is entirely soluble in water and freely 
movable, and, therefore, liable to be washed away and lost. 
The other elements, phosphoric acid and potash, cost much 



ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 79 

less than nitrogen, and are fixed in the soil, and, as a rule, 
are taken out of the soil only by the plants themselves. It 
is estimated that, even when the greatest care is exercised, 
not more than two-thirds of the nitrogen applied as manure 
is used by the crop. Carelessness in its use results, of 
course, in much greater losses. 

Application of Nitrates. — Nitrates being completely 
soluble, should not be applied in large quantities in the fall 
of the year, or in the early spring before vegetation begins. 
The most economical use of this form of nitrogen lies in 
its fractional application to growing crops in quantities 
sufficient for their needs. An overabundance of available 
nitrogen frequently causes a too rapid development of leaf. 
It should be applied when the foliage is dry, either pre- 
ceding or following a rain, in order to effect its solution, 
unless it is cultivated into the surface soil. The favorable 
effect of nitrates applied in this way is very quickly 
noticeable, especially upon vegetable and garden crops. 

The above is true, though in a less degree, of am- 
monia salts. Frequently losses occur through too heavy 
applications at the wrong time. 

Application of Organic Nitrogen. — Organic forms 
of nitrogen may be applied at any time, and in larger 
quantities. The more insoluble materials should be ap- 
plied in amounts known to be in excess of the needs 
of the crop; since, even under the best conditions, the 
nitrogen contained in them is slowly available. 

Materials like blood and fine-ground fish will rot com- 
pletely in an average season ; while horn, hoof, hair, 
leather, wool, etc., may require several seasons to effect 
their complete decay. 



80 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 



CHAPTEE VII. 
Artificial and Concentrated Manures ; Phosphates. 

The phosphoric acid in artificial manures is derived 
from compounds called ^^ phosphates." In phosj)hates 
the phosphoric acid is united with lime, iron, and alu- 
mina, forming phosphates of lime, iron, and alumina, as 
the case may be. The phosphates of lime are better 
calculated for the purpose, and are, therefore, used more 
largely than any other as a source of phosphoric acid 
in the manufacture of artificial manures. 

The phosphates available for this purpose are not, 
however, pure salts, but exist in combination either with 
organic substances, or with minerals, or both ; the con- 
tent of phosphoric acid and its combination with other 
substances determining the usefulness of the phosphate 
to the manure-maker. 

The phosphoric acid in these materials is difficultly 
soluble in the soil water ; and hence in their original con- 
dition, or in the crude raw forms, they give up this ele- 
ment in proportion as they decompose or decay in the 
soil. Those in combination with organic substances, 
either animal or vegetable, are, as a rule, more quickly 
useful as a source of phosphoric acid than those com- 
posed entirely of mineral constituents. 

Animal Bone. — The bones of animals are the chief 
source of phosphates that exist in combination with or- 



ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 81 

ganic matter, and were for a long time the main source 
for manurial purposes. 

^ Bone consists chiefly of three classes of substances ; 
viz., moisture, organic matter, containing nitrogenous and 
fatty matter, and phosphate of lime, — the proportion, 
particularly of the nitrogen and phosphoric acid, depend- 
ing upon the kind of bone, and the method of its treat- 
ment. 

Bone from the same kind of animal differs in compo- 
sition according to the age of the animal, and according 
to its location in the body. In a general way the younger 
the animal the softer the bone, the poorer in phosphate 
of lime, and the richer in nitrogen ; the older the animal, 
the richer in phosphate of lime, and the poorer in nitro- 
gen. The large and hard thigh bones of an ox, for in- 
stance, differ in composition from the softer and more 
porous bones of other parts of the bod}^ 

Treat a bone with dilute hydrochloric acid, and you 
dissolve the phosphate of lime, and leave the soft pulpy 
animal matter, which retains its original shape. Burn 
the bone, and you drive off the organic matter, and leave 
the porous phosphate of lime in the original shape, show- 
ing the structure of the bone. The phosjDhate of lime 
of the harder bones is dense and compact ; that from 
the softer bone is more open and porous. The chief cause 
of variation in the composition of bones used as manure, 
however, is due to the treatment they receive. This is 
recognized by manufacturers and dealers, and different 
names of brands are used to indicate the method of 
manufacture or treatment; as applied, however, they do 
not always correspond to the methods of treatment. 



82 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

Raw Bone. — The term " raw bone '' is properly ap- 
plied to bone that has not suffered any loss of its origi- 
nal constituents in the processes of its manufacturp ; and 
is for this reason highly regarded by farmers, who be- 
lieve that it is purer than any other form. This is 
true in a large measure, though the fact that it is raw 
bone is not altogether an advantage from the standpoint 
of usefulness. Eaw bone too often contains consider- 
able fatty matter, which makes it a difficult process to 
grind it fine, and which also has a tendency to retard the 
decay of the bone in the soil. A considerable amount of 
fat also reduces proportionately the percentage of the val- 
uable constituents, phosphoric acid and nitrogen. Good 
raw bone, free from meat and excess of fat, should con- 
tain on the average twenty-two per cent of phosphoric 
acid, and four per cent of nitrogen. 

Fine Bone. — The trade terms "bone meal," '^ bone 
dust," and "fine bone" are used to indicate mechanical 
condition, or fineness of division, and do not refer es- 
pecially to composition. These names should not be 
taken as indicating the fineness without personal exami- 
nation, since frequently the products do not, in this 
respect, correspond to the name. Fineness is an impor- 
tant consideration, since, the finer the bone, the quicker it 
will decay, and its constituents become available to plants. 

Boiled and Steamed Bone. — The larger portion of 
the bone used as manure has been boiled or steamed for 
the purpose of freeing it from fat and nitrogenous matter, 
both of which are products valuable for other purposes. 
The fat is, of course, of no value as a manure, and its 
absence is an advantage. The nitrogen, while useful 



ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 83 

as a manure, is extracted chiefly for the purpose of mak- 
ing glue and gelatine. 

By boiling or steaming, the bone suffers a loss of its 
original constituents, the chief result of which is to 
change the proportions of the nitrogen and phosphoric 
acid contained in it. Steamed or boiled bone contains 
more phosphoric acid, and less nitrogen, than raw bone, 
and is also more variable in composition, the relative 
percentage of these constituents depending upon the de- 
gree of steaming or boiling to which the bone has been 
subjected. 

Bone that has been used for the purpose of making 
glue, where the chief object is to extract the nitrogenous 
matter, contains from twenty-eight to thirty per cent of 
phosphoric acid, and from one and one-quarter to one 
and three-quarters per cent of nitrogen. The steaming of 
bone, particularly when conducted at high pressure, also 
exerts a favorable effect upon the physical and mechani- 
cal character of the bone. It destroys its original struc- 
ture, makes it soft and crumbly, and often reduces it to 
a finer state of division than can be readily accomplished 
by grinding; and, since it is also free from fat, and is 
finer, it is more directly useful as a source of phosphoric 
acid to plants than purer raw bone. 

Experiments have shown that the phosphoric acid in 
fine steamed bone may all become available in the soil, 
under average conditions, in one or tv/o seasons ; while 
that in the coarser, fatty raw bone is not completely used 
in three or four years, and sometimes longer. 

In some cases, the fat is extracted from bone by means 
gf such solvents as petroleum or benzine. These meth- 



84 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

ods of extracting the fat have the advantage of increas- 
ing the relative proportion of the nitrogen, this element 
not being attacked b}^ the solvents. 

The more complete extraction of the fat and moisture 
by these methods also aids in the final preparation of the 
bone by grinding. Bone prepared in this way frequently 
contains as high as six per cent of nitrogen, and twenty 
per cent of phosphoric acid. 

The nature and composition of animal bone is such as 
to make it a valuable source of phosphoric acid ; and, 
while it is largely used with nitrogenous and potassic 
materials in the manufacture of artificial manures, its 
best use is, perhaps, in the fine ground form, particularly 
for soil improvement and for slow-growing crops. 

Phosphoric acid applied in this form gradually gives 
up nitrogen and phosphoric acid to the plant ; and its 
physical and chemical conditions are such that it forms 
in the soil, during the growing season, no compounds 
more insoluble than the bone itself. Of all the phos- 
phatic materials available as manure, bone is the only 
one that is now used to any extent without further treat- 
ment than simple grinding. 

Bone-black or Animal Charcoal. — This material 
becomes an important source of phosphoric acid for arti- 
ficial manures after it has served its chief and first pur- 
pose in clarifying sugar. In making bone-black only the 
best bones are used; they are cleaned and dried, and 
placed in air-tight vessels, and heated until all volatile 
matter is driven off; the resultant product, which retains 
in part the original form of the bone, is then ground to 
a coarse powder ; it then becomes a bone charcoal, con- 



ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 85 

sisting chiefly of carbon and phosphate of lime, though 
also containing small amounts of magnesia and carbonate 
of lime. 

Bone-black, as received from the refineries, contains the 
impurities gathered there, consisting chiefly of vegetable 
matter and moisture. It is somewhat variable in compo- 
sition, containing from thirty-two to thirty-six per cent 
of phosphoric acid and a small amount of nitrogen. It 
decays slowly in the soil, and is not now used to any 
extent directly as a manure. 

Bone-ash. — Bone-ash, though not a large, is an ex- 
cellent source of phosphoric acid. It is exported in con- 
siderable quantities from South America, where the bones 
are burned, and the bulk reduced, in order to facilitate 
transportation. It does not contain nitrogen, and is more 
variable in composition than bone-black, though usually 
somewhat richer in phosphate of lime. Good samples 
contain from twenty-seven per cent to thirty-six per cent 
of phosphoric acid. 

Bones themselves, and the phosphates derived from 
bones, constitute a class differing from other phosphates 
used in making manures, in that they are derived directly 
from organic materials ; and, as a class, they possess char- 
acteristics due to this fact, which render them more use- 
ful than those derived from purely mineral sources. 

Mineral Phosphates. — These constitute a class of 
products differing from those of immediate or recent ani- 
mal origin, mainly in the fact that they are not combined 
wdth organic matter, and are more dense and compact in 
their structure. They occur in several different forms, 
and are procured from distinct sources. 



86 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

South Carolina Rock Phosphates. — These are found 
both on the land and in the beds of rivers in the vicinity 
of Charleston, S. C, and are sometimes called " Charles- 
ton Phosphates." The "deposits vary in thickness from 
one to twenty feet, through which the phosphate is dis- 
tributed in the form of lumps or nodules, ranging in 
weight from an ounce to over a ton. These nodules 
are irregular, non-crystalline masses, often full of holes, 
which contain clay or other non-phosphatic materials. 
That obtained from the river is called " river phosphate," 
or " river rock ; " and that from the land, " land phos- 
phate," or " land rock." The two varieties do not dif- 
fer materially in composition, particularly in the content 
of phosphoric acid. 

The rock contains from twenty-six per cent to twenty- 
eight per cent of phosphoric acid. Its uniformity, in 
connection with the fact that it contains but small per- 
centages of compounds of iron and alumina, minerals 
which prevent its best use by the manufacturer, makes 
it a highly satisfactory source of phosphoric acid. 

The river rock is secured by dredging; that from the 
land is largely dug. In either case, it is washed to 
remove the adhering matter, and then dried, when it is 
ready for grinding or shipment. South Carolina rock 
phosphate, when very finely ground, is called ''floats." 
It is sometimes used upon the land in this form. 

These deposits were first worked in 1868, though the 
presence of phosphate at this point was known at a 
much earlier date. 

Florida Phosphates. — The presence of phosphate in 
commercial quantities in Florida was discovered in 1888, 



ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 87 

since which time very great progress has been made in 
developing the deposits. These deposits occur in a num- 
ber of forms, — first, " soft phosphate,'^ a whitish product, 
somewhat resembling clay, and largely contaminated with 
it ; second, " pebble phosphate," consisting of hard peb- 
bles, occurring both in river-beds and upon the land, and 
mixed with other materials; and third, ^^ rock," or "bowl- 
der phosphate," which occurs in the form of stony masses, 
or bowlders, both large and small. These three forms 
also differ widely in composition, both in reference to 
their content of phosphoric acid and in respect to the 
presence of other minerals. 

The soft phosphate is the poorest in phosphoric acid : 
it is easily prepared, and is largely used directly upon 
the land ; it is also the most variable in composition, 
ranging from eighteen to thirty per cent. The pebble 
rock is also variable in composition, though, when washed 
free of sand and clay, it is richer in phosphoric acid 
than the soft variety; good samples contain as high as 
forty per cent and over of phosphoric acid. The bulk 
of the 'Tlorida Phosphate" is believed to exist in the 
pebble form. 

The rock or bowlder phosphate, though apparently 
much less in amount, is more uniform in composition, 
and is much richer than either of the other forms. The 
clean, dry bowlder phosphate often contains as high as 
forty per cent phosphoric acid, far exceeding in richness 
the South Carolina rock superphosphate. 

Canadian Apatite. — This material is a crystallized 
rock of true mineral origin, and occurs associated to a 
greater or less extent with other materials. It is, there- 



88 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

fore, not uniform in character, the phosphoric acid vary- 
ing according to the amount of the other substances 
present. 

It is mined in the provinces of Quebec and Ontario, 
and separated into various grades at the mines. The 
mining is expensive, and the necessity for grading in 
addition makes the cost of production proportionately 
high. The highest grade of this phosphate is very pure, 
containing forty per cent of phosphoric acid. 

Iron Phosphate. — This is a waste product from the 
manufacture of steel from phosphatic iron ores, by what 
is known as the " basic process." It is sold under several 
names, as '^Thomas Phosphate Meal," ''Phosphate Slag," 
" Basic Slag," and " Odorless Phosphate." It is produced 
in large quantities in England, France, and Germany ; and 
in those countries is not only one of the cheapest sources 
of phosphoric acid, but is regarded as a very valuable 
product. It is not produced to any extent in America, 
is known under the name of "Odorless Phosphate," and 
is not largely used. It contains from fifteen to twenty 
per cent of phosphoric acid, in the form of phosphate 
of lime, in connection with large amounts of lime and 
oxide of iron. It is used almost altogether in the form 
of a fine powder, since it is not suitable for the purposes 
of the manufacturer. When very finely ground, the 
phosphoric acid is quite as active as that contained in 
fine bone meal, and is especially suitable for clay and 
sandy soils and for meadows. 

Phosphatic Guanos. — Previous to the discovery of 
the phosphates in South Carolina, these guanos were a 
very important source of phosphoric acid; they are now 



ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 89 

but little used in this country. They are obtained from 
the rainless districts of the world, chiefly from the 
islands bordering the coast of South America and from 
the West Indies. They are derived from the excrements 
of birds, and frequently contain considerable organic 
matter containing nitrogen. 

The Peruvian guano of earlier times was particularly 
rich in the best forms of nitrogen. The purely phos- 
phatic guanos are rich in phosphoric acid, and are excel- 
lent materials ; like the iron phosphate, they are not 
suitable for the manufacture of artificial manures. 

Insolubility of Phosphates. — The phosphates men- 
tioned constitute what are called " raw materials," and, 
with the exception of bone, are not largely used directly, 
or without further treatment to render the phosphoric 
acid more soluble, and thus more immediately available 
to plants. As already stated, the phosphoric acid in 
them becomes food in proportion to the rapidity of de- 
cay, which is influenced both by the character of the 
material and the fineness of its division. Fine mate- 
rials, too, permit of a more even distribution, thus bring- 
ing more particles of phosphate in contact with the 
roots of the plants. 



90 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Artificial and Concentrated Manures ; Superphosphates and Potash 

Salts. 

Phosphate of lime is a chemical salt capable of exist- 
ing in three forms. The first consists of three parts of 
lime and one part of phosphoric acid; this is the insolu- 
ble form, and it exists as such in all natural phosphates. 
This form, because of the three parts of lime contained 
in it, is also called "tricalcic," "tribasic," or "three- 
lime phosphate." The second form consists of two parts 
of lime and one of phosphoric acid, and is called "dical- 
cic,'' " dibasic," or " two-lime phosphate ; " it is insoluble 
in water, but readily soluble to the roots of plants. The 
third form consists of one part of lime and one of phos- 
phoric acid, and is called " monocalcic," ''monobasic," 
"acid phosphate," or "superphosphate." This form is 
completely soluble in water, readily distributes itself 
everywhere in the soil, and is immediately available to 
plants. A " tetrabasic," or "four-lime phosphate," has 
been found in basic slag. This form, though insoluble 
in water, breaks up readily and is more available than 
the insoluble "tribasic" form. 

Superphosphates, or soluble phosphates, are made from 
the raw materials containing insoluble tricalcic phos- 
phate, by first grinding them to a powder and then 



ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 91 

mixing them with sulphuric acid, which changes the 
tricalcic — three-lime — into the monocalcic — one-lime 
— form, or the insoluble into the soluble form. In this 
process, two of the three parts of the lime, combined 
with the phosphoric acid to form the insoluble phos- 
phate, are removed and united to sulphuric acid, forming 
sulphate of lime, leaving one i)art of lime combined with 
phosphoric acid, which is the " monocalcic '^ or "super- 
phosphate." 

A pure superphosphate is, therefore, a mixture of a 
soluble phosphate, and of sulphate of lime, or gypsum. 

Soluble Phosphoric Acid. — Nearly all workable pro- 
ducts containing phosphate of lime are capable of being 
converted into an " acid phosphate " or a " superphos- 
phate." The soluble phosphoric acid thus obtained is a 
definite compound, and is identical in composition, from 
whatever source derived. 

The term "phosphate" is applied to any material con- 
taining, as its chief constituent, phosphoric acid. The 
term " superphosphate " is applied to any material con- 
taining soluble phosphoric acid as its chief constituent. 

Thus we have the phosphates already described, which 
when treated with sulphuric acid are converted into 
superphosphates, as bone superphosphate, South Carolina 
rock superphosphate, bone-black superphosphate, bone- 
ash superphosphate, and Florida rock superphosphate. 
Care should be taken not to confound the terms " phos- 
phate " and " superphosphate." They are, as we have 
seen, very different both in composition and character. 

Composition of Superphosphates. — Superphosphates 
differ in their content of phosphoric acid according to the 



92 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

composition and character of the phosphates from which 
they are made. Those made from organic phosphates, as 
bone black and bone ash, are richer in soluble phosphoric 
acid than those made from animal bone or from mineral 
phosphates; since these materials are of such a character 
as to enable the manufacturer to add sufficient sulj^huric 
acid to convert all of the phosphate present into a soluble 
form, and at the same time to secure a dry fine product, 
which is an important consideration in making super- 
phosphates. 

Mineral phosphates, both because of their hardness and 
of the presence of other minerals which are attacked by 
the acid, are less easily dissolved, and require more acid 
in proportion to the phosphate present than those from 
organic sources. They are also less absorbent, hence it is 
more difficult to secure good condition when sufficient acid 
is used to dissolve all the phosphate. In making super- 
phosphates from these materials, less acid is used than 
is required to completely dissolve the phosphates ; and 
there is, therefore, always present in them more or less 
of the insoluble phosphoric acid. 

In the case of animal bone, too, less sulphuric acid is 
used than is required to completely dissolve the phosphoric 
acid; otherwise, a gummy, sticky product would result, 
due largely to the organic matter in the bone. The in- 
soluble phosphoric acid in bone, bone-black, and bone-ash 
superphosphates is, however, of greater value than the 
insoluble in the mineral phosphates, for reasons already 
given. 

In superphosphates, too, there is nearly always present 
a greater or less amount — depending upon the material — 



ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 93 

of the second form of phosphoric acid, the dicalcic, also 
called "reverted" or "retrograde." This form exists in 
the greatest amounts in those made from mineral phos- 
phates, which is believed to be due either to the soluble 
acting upon the insoluble portions, or to the presence of 
oxide of iron and alumina, which combine with a portion 
of the soluble phosphoric acid. The soluble goes back to 
a less soluble form. 

In stating the composition of superphosphates, the three 
forms of phosphoric acid are all recognized. The sum of 
the soluble and reverted is called the " total available," 
because these forms are regarded as immediately useful 
to the plant. 

Bone ash and bone black contain on the average sixteen 
per cent of total available phosphoric acid, practically all 
soluble ; while those from mineral sources usually contain 
less than fourteen per cent total available, which includes 
one to three per cent of dicalcic or reverted. These also 
contain from one to three per cent of insoluble phosphoric 
acid. 

Superphosphates made from animal bone are more vari- 
able in their composition than those made from bone 
black or the mineral phosphates; this being due largely 
to the variability of the raw materials, chiefly in respect 
to the content of phosphoric acid. These differ, too, from 
the others mentioned in containing nitrogen in addition 
to the phosphoric acid ; for this reason they are fre- 
quently called " ammoniated superphosphates," or dis- 
solved ammoniated bone. 

Advantages of Soluble Phosphoric Acid. — Soluble 
phosphoric acid, in addition to its direct availability, which 



94 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

is its first advantage, is chiefly valuable because of its ease 
of self-distribution. When applied to the soil, it is taken 
up by the water and more generally distributed than is 
possible by any mechanical means, however fine the sub- 
stance may be ground. The roots of plants come in con- 
stant contact with it wherever they go. 

The dicalcic or reverted phosphoric acid is believed to 
be quite as available to plants, but it remains exactly 
where it is placed ; if the roots are there they can make 
quite as ready use of it as the soluble. The main differ- 
ence between the soluble and reverted is that in the former 
case the phosphoric acid goes to the roots, while in the 
latter case the roots must go to the phosphoric acid. The 
same is true of the insoluble, though in a different degree. 
Here the roots must not only go to the phosphoric acid, but 
the amount that can be used is measured by the activity 
of the roots in aiding its solution. 

A superphosphate, therefore, is valuable in proportion to 
the amount of soluble phosphoric acid contained in it ; the 
greater the amount of soluble, and the less the amount of 
reverted and insoluble, the more valuable. If insoluble or 
reverted forms are desired — and they are often quite as 
useful as the soluble — they may be procured from un- 
treated products. 

Fixation of Phosphates. — Phosphoric acid, though 
soluble in water, is not Avashed from the soil ; it is fixed 
there by combining with the lime and other minerals pres- 
ent. It is believed to assume first, by the appropriation 
of lime, the dicalcic form, though it is not positively cer- 
tain that the insoluble tricalcic phosphate is not sometimes 
formed. It may also combine with iron and alumina and 



ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 95 

form phosphates ; these forms are believed to be less 
readily taken up by the plant than the dicalcic form. 

The time required for this fixation, as well as the form 
it takes, depends upon the character of the soil ; though on 
soils in a good state of fertility the fixation is quite rapid. 
On very sandy soils the fixation is sometimes incomplete, 
because of the absence of lime and iron. 

Use of Superphosphates. — Because of the tendency 
of soluble phosphoric acid to form in time relatively in- 
soluble compounds in the soil, it is often recommended 
to use a mixture of superphosphate and of animal bone, 
instead of either alone; the soluble for immediate use, 
and the less soluble for use at later stages of growth, or 
for the improvement of fertility. 

Superphosphates are never better or more available 
than when applied ; phosphates are probably never less 
available than at the time applied. 

Recent experiments and studies show that fine ground 
phosphates are very desirable under certain conditions, 
and their use is gradually growing in favor. This point 
has reference, however, to the economy of use, which 
will be discussed in detail in its proper place. 

Potash Manures. — Farm crops remove considerable 
amounts of potash ; and since many soils, particularly 
those composed largely of sand, are not rich in this ele- 
ment, potash becomes a very important constituent of 
manures. 

In the early history of the country, wood-ashes were 
an important, and practically the only, source of potash 
for manurial purposes, aside from yard manure and vege- 
table wastes, At the present time by far the most 



96 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

important source of potash is the Stassfurt mines of 
Germany. These mines consist of deposits of crude 
salts, which have doubtless been formed by the evapo- 
ration of the water in an inland sea. They have been 
worked since 1862 ; and, while enormous quantities have 
been removed, the extent of the deposits is so great 
as to appear inexhaustible. 

These salts, as mined, contain relatively small per- 
centages of actual potash, and considerable quantities 
of other salts, some of which are injurious to plants, 
though a number of the crude salts are used directly 
upon the land. 

The crude products of the mines, shipped and sold in 
this country, consist chiefly of kainit and sylvinit, and the 
manufactured products are muriate of potash, sulphate of 
potash, and sulphate of potash and magnesia. 

These salts are all completely soluble in water, and 
equally available as sources of food to plants. The 
forms have reference mainly to the effect, good or bad, 
upon the growth of plants, of the constituents with 
which the potash is combined, or the other salts 
with which the potash is associated. Chlorides are be- 
lieved to be less desirable than the sulphates for cer- 
tain crops. 

Forms of Potash. — The commercial potash salts 
used are of two distinct chemical forms, — one in which 
the potash is combined with chlorine to form chloride 
of potassium, or, as it is more generally called, "muriate 
of potash ; " the other in which the potash is combined 
with sulphuric acid to form " sulphate of potash." 

Hainit. — This is the only crude product that is 



ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 97 

largely used directly upon the land. It is composed of 
a number of salts, chiefly " sodium chloride/' or ordi- 
nary salt, " magnesium chloride," ^' magnesium sulphate," 
and "potassium sulphate." 

Although the potash in kainit is in the form of a 
sulphate, its effect is quite similar to that derived from 
the use of muriate, because of the large quantities of 
chlorides contained in it, in combination with magnesia 
and soda. It is not rich in potash, containing on the 
average twelve and one-half per cent of actual potash, 
or potassium oxide. 

Sylvinit. — This is a crude salt, similar to kainit in 
that it contains relatively small amounts of actual pot- 
ash, though the potash in sylvinit exists both in the 
form of a sulphate and of a muriate, or chloride. There 
is, too, in this salt less of the magnesia compounds than 
in the kainit. Sylvinit is not largely exported to this 
country. The analyses of the products used here show 
an average of sixteen per cent actual potash. 

Kainit and Sylvinit as Indirect Manures. — These 
crude salts are valuable as indirect manures in that the 
salts present, other than the potash, have a solvent effect 
upon other soil constituents, particularly phosphates ; 
they also aid in many cases in improving the physical 
character of soils. It is believed, too, that the magnesia 
contained in them serves as direct food under certain 
circumstances, though this point is not regarded as of 
great importance. 

The Application of Crude Potash Salts. — In the 
use of these forms of potash, it is recommended that 
their application should precede by a considerable time 



98 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

the planting of the crop, in order to avoid danger to 
the young plant from an excess of magnesia salts, 
which injure the tender rootlets of plants, and also that 
the excess of chlorides, which sometimes influence un- 
favorably the quality of the produce, may be washed 
from the surface soil by the rains. 

In Germany, where the use of these potash compounds 
has received most careful study, their application is 
almost invariably made in the fall of the year, or upon 
the crop preceding the one which is in especial need 
of potash fertilization. In this country, owing to our 
heavy spring rains, an early spring application Avill 
doubtless answer quite as well in most cases. 

Muriate of Potash. — This salt is manufactured from 
the crude forms, and is the richest in potash of the 
Stassfurt products. It varies in composition according 
to the method of manufacture, the commercial products 
being divided into three grades. The grade most com- 
monly met with upon the markets here contains about 
fifty per cent actual potash, or potassium oxide. The 
chief impurity is common salt, or sodium chloride ; the 
lower the content of potash, the higher the content of 
sodium salts. This form of potash is perhaps more 
largely used than any other. 

Sulphate of Potash. — This form of potash, often 
called "high-grade sulphate," is regarded as preferable 
to the "muriate" for many crops, particularly sugar- 
beets, tobacco, potatoes, and fruit, chiefly because of its 
more favorable influence on the quality of the produce. 
It is, however, more expensive than the muriate, and is 
not so largely used by the manure-makers. Its effect 



ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 99 

upon yield is not believed to be superior to the muriate. 
Commercial forms of sulphate of potash contain on the 
average fifty per cent of actual potash. 

Double Sulphate of Potash and Magnesia. — This 
product is similar to the high-grade sulphate in its 
effect. It contains, in addition to the sulphate of pot- 
ash, over thirty per cent of sulphate of magnesia. The 
potash contained in the product, as usually found, is 
equivalent to about twenty-six per cent of actual pot- 
ash, though lower grades are made. These are known 
under the name of ^^ double manure salts." The mag- 
nesia is regarded as of considerable value, particularly 
in potato manures. The cost of potash in the double 
sulphate is also greater than in the muriate. 

Appearance of Potash Salts. — Although all these 
products exist in the form of salts, they differ in appear- 
ance and character. The sulphates are usually in the 
form of a fine powder, in color ranging from nearly white 
to a dirty gray. The muriate is in the form of small, 
though distinct crystals, varying in color from grayish 
white to light brown. The kainit is composed of crys- 
tals, varying in color from white to dark gray, giv- 
ing the ground salt a rather pepper-and-salt appearance. 
Upon standing, all of these salts have a tendency to 
become hard, though, with the exception of kainit, they 
are easily pulverized. Kainit often becomes very hard, 
and requires regrinding in order to make its application 
possible. 

The Uses of Potash Salts. — Although these salts 
are regarded mainly as sources of potash to the manure 
manufacturer, their direct use upon the land is increasing 



100 FIEST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

rapidly. This is due in large part to the facts that they 
are of such a character as to make their application, and 
even distribution, a comparatively easy matter ; that the 
quality of the potash is not improved by the manufac- 
turer ; and that on many soils crops respond to liberal 
applications of potash alone. The crops most benefited 
are potatoes, white and sweet meadow grasses, clover, 
and orchard fruits. 



ARTIFICIAL MANURES OR FERTILIZERS. 101 



CHAPTER IX. 

Artificial Manures or Fertilizers ; Methods of Buying ; Valuation ; 
Formulas. 

The fertilizing materials described in the three preced- 
ing chapters are the raw materials, and are the main 
sources of supply of plant-food to manufacturers and to 
farmers. 

Standard High-Grade Materials. — Such materials 
as nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, dried blood, bone 
black, and South Carolina rock superphosphates, and the 
various potash salts, are called standard products. Dif- 
ferent samples of any of these do not vary widely in 
their composition, and those of the same kind are prac- 
tically uniform in their action. For instance, any one ton 
of nitrate of soda contains practically the same amount 
of nitrogen as any other ton, and the nitrogen is always 
in the form of a nitrate. 

They are standard because they can be depended upon, 
both in respect to composition and form of the essential 
element. These are important advantages not possessed 
by the natural manures or fertilizing materials derived 
from other sources. They are also called " chemical '' or 
"high grade," because they are in most cases chemical 
compounds, and, therefore, furnish these particular ele- 
ments in their most concentrated and active forms. 



102 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

Incomplete and Complete Fertilizers. — Fertilizing 
materials may contain but one or two of the essential con- 
stituents, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. Hence 
the name " incomplete fertilizer " is sometimes applied to 
them, signifying that they do not serve in all cases to 
supply the probable needs of the crop. 

The fertilizers manufactured from raw materials usually 
contain all three of these essential constituents ; hence 
they are called " complete fertilizers," signifying that they 
completely meet the needs of the crop in reference to the 
number of the constituents that are liable to be lacking. 

Methods of Buying. — In buying a fertilizer, that 
which gives direct value is the fertilizing constituent, 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or potash ; hence the transac- 
tion is virtually the buying of one or more of these con- 
stituents. It is readily seen, therefore, that the more 
concentrated the product, the less will be the actual cost 
of the constituent desired. 

Again, fertilizers may be bought and used either as 
" incomplete," — raw materials, — or as " complete," — 
manufactured products or mixtures, the process of man- 
ufacture consisting chiefly in mixing, grinding, and pre- 
paring the various materials described. There are cer- 
tain advantages and disadvantages in both methods of 
buying. The advantages in the purchase and use of raw 
materials are : — 

1. A better knowledge of the kind and quality of 
plant-food obtained ; that is, these products as a rule pos- 
sess characteristics which distinguish them from others 
and from each other, and they are more liable to be 
uniform in composition than mixtures. 



ARTIFICIAL MANURES OR FERTILIZERS. 103 

2. The using of one or more of the constituents as 
may be found to be necessary, thus avoiding the expense 
of purchasing and applying those not required for the 
particular crop or soil. The farmer is also enabled to 
adjust the forms and proportions of the various ingre- 
dients to suit what he has found to answer the needs of 
his soil or crop. 

3. A saving in the cost of plant-food, since in their 
concentrated form the expenses of handling, shipment, 
bagging, etc., are reduced. 

The chief disadvantages in the buying and use of 
incomplete fertilizers are : — 

1. They are not so generally distributed among dealers, 
and thus not so readily obtained. 

2. It is difficult to spread evenly and thinly products 
of so concentrated a character, particularly the chemical 
salts, which, unless great care is used, may injure by 
coming in immediate contact with the roots of plants. 

3. The mechanical condition, or degree of fineness, is 
less perfect than in the manufactured products. 

The advantages in the purchase and use of complete 
manures are : — 

1. They are generally distributed, and can be purchased 
in such amounts and at such times as are convenient. 

2. The different materials may be well proportioned, 
both as to form of the constituents and their relative 
amount for the various crops. 

3. The products are, as a rule, finely ground and well 
prepared for immediate use. 

The chief disadvantages are : — 

1. That it is impossible to detect in a mixture whether 
the materials are what they are claimed to be. 



104 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

2. That without a true knowledge of what constitutes 
vahie, many are led to purchase on the ton basis, without 
regard to the quantity and quality of the plant-food offered. 

Guarantee. — The fact that consumers are unable to 
determine the value of a mixture from its appearance, 
and the opportunity thus afforded for disguising the 
presence of poor forms of plant-food, has led in many 
states to the enactment of laws which require that all 
manufacturers shall publish the actual composition of 
their products, and also state the kind of material from 
which the constituents have been derived; or, in other 
words, that they shall guarantee the goods to contain 
certain amounts and forms of the three plant-food ele- 
ments, the state exercising a chemical control of the 
products sold. 

By this means, spurious articles are kept from the 
market, and good manufacturers and farmers are pro- 
tected, though it is left still to the intelligence of the 
farmer to determine whether there is a proper relation 
between the guarantee and selling price. 

Interpretation of Guarantees. — The statement of the 
guarantee is sometimes confusing to purchasers, as differ- 
ent manufacturers use methods which seem to them most 
desirable. The following examples illustrate this point : — 

Guarantee No. 1. 

Nitrogen (equivalent to ammonia) 3-4% 

Available Phosphoric Acid (equivalent to bone phos. of 

lime) 18-22% 

Potash (equivalent to sulphate of potash) 10-12% 

Guarantee No. 2. 

Nitrogen 2.50- 3.25% 

Available Phosphoric Acid 8.00-10.00% 

Potash (actual) 6.50- 6.50% 



ARTIFICIAL MANURES OR FERTILIZERS. 105 

The guarantees here given mean practically the same 
in both cases. In No. 1 the percentages represent the 
amounts in combination with other elements ; while in 
No. 2 percentages of actual constituents are stated, viz., 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potassium oxide. 

In order to convert the ammonia into its equivalent 
of nitrogen, the percentage of ammonia may be multiplied 
by eighty -two per cent, or divided by 1.214 ; since ammo- 
nia is eighty-two per cent nitrogen, and since one part 
of nitrogen is equal to 1.214 parts of ammonia. 

Bone phosphate of lime is forty-six per cent actual 
phosphoric acid ; hence multiplying the bone phosphate 
by forty-six per cent gives the per cent of actual phos- 
phoric acid. Sulphate of potash is fifty-four per cent, 
and muriate of potash is sixty-three per cent actual or 
potassium oxide ; hence, to convert the percentages of 
these forms into their equivalents of actual, they are 
multiplied by the factors given. 

In most raw materials another method of guaranteeing 
is adopted, because in these the guarantee is simply 
a statement of their purity. For instance, nitrate of 
soda is guaranteed as ninety-five per cent pure nitrate ; 
muriate of potash is guaranteed eighty per cent pure 
muriate, etc., which means that the products are respec- 
tively ninety-five and eighty per cent pure, or in other 
words, that in the case of nitrate five per cent of it is 
something other than nitrate of soda, and in the case of 
the muriate twenty per cent of it is something other 
than muriate of potash. 

The factors necessary to use in the conversion of the 
constituents in their usual form of combination into 



106 



FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 



the actual are sliown in the following tabular state- 
ment : — 



TO CONVERT 








THE GUARANTEE OF 


MULTIPLY BY 


Ammonia into an equivalent of nitrogen . . . 


0.8235 


Nitrogen " ' 




' " ammonia . . 


1.214 


Nitrate of soda " ' 




* " nitrogen . . . 


16.47 


Bone phosphate " * 




* " phosphoric acid 


0.458 


Phosphoric acid " * 




' " hone phosphate 


2.183 


Muriate of potash " ' 




* " actual potash . 


0.632 


Actual potash ' " ' 




' " muriate of potash 


1.583 


Sulphate of potash " ' 




' " actual potash . 


0.54 


Actual potash " * 




' " sulphate of potast 


L 1.85 



The Unit Basis or Systera. — What -is known as 
the "unit system" of stating the amount of plant-food 
contained in a fertilizer is sometimes employed; the 
" unit " means one per cent on the basis of a ton, or 
twenty pounds. For instance, a " unit " of nitrogen 
means twenty pounds, and a dried blood guaranteed to 
contain ten units, means that two hundred pounds of 
nitrogen is contained in one ton. 

This system is largely used by trade journals in stat- 
ing quotations, particularly for nitrogenous and phosphatic 
materials. Purchasing on the " unit basis " is the true 
method, and hence the most satisfactory of any to both 
the producer and consumer, and should be adopted in 
all transactions. It means that the consumer secures 
what he pays for, and the producer is paid for exactly 
what he delivers. 

Purchasers should insist that any material, whether 
mixed or unmixed, should be accompanied by a guarantee. 

Comraercial Values. — The commercial value of raw 
materials is fixed by trade conditions, as supply and 
demand, usefulness in the arts or manufacture, and 



ARTIFICIAL MANURES OB FERTILIZERS. 107 

market manipLilations. The value of tliese x^roducts for 
fertilizing purposes depends almost entirely upon the 
constituents contained; hence the actual cost of the con- 
stituent is readily determined when the factors, price, 
and amount contained in a given quantity, are known. 
The selling price of nitrate of soda, for example, is 
$48.00 per ton; and as a ton contains on the average 
three hundred and twenty pounds of nitrogen, the cost 
or commercial vahie of nitrogen is, therefore, fifteen 
cents per pound. 

In many States a system of valuation for mixed ferti- 
lizers has been adopted, which furnishes a fair method 
of comparison of different brands. This method assumes 
that at points of supply a pound of nitrogen in the form 
of nitrate, of ammonia, or of definite organic compounds, 
or a pound of available phosphoric acid, or of potash in 
the form of muriate or sulphate, is practically the same 
to all manufacturers. A value for each of these con- 
stituents derived as already described, when applied to 
the constituents in the mixture, represents the cost of 
the elements before they are mixed to form complete fer- 
tilizers ; and hence the difference between the valuation 
and selling-price of a brand represents the charges, includ- 
ing profit, for mixing, bagging, shipping, and selling the 
goods. 

This valuation of a brand is commercial, and bears no 
strict relation to its possible agricultural effect ; it simply 
states that so many pounds of the constituents as are 
contained in a ton are commercially worth the value given, 
at point of production. It shows what a given lot or 
brand of fertilizer is worth as a commodity of trade ; 



108 FinsT PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

what it costs ; and a comparison of the valuation and 
selling-price of a number in connection with their com- 
position indicates which is the best for the money. 

Nitrogen from the same source is worth no more in 
one brand than in another; the same is true in reference 
to potash and available phosphoric acid. 

Analyses of Fertilizers. — The chemical analysis of 
a fertilizer should show, as far as possible, both the 
amount and form of either or all of the three con- 
stituents contained ; viz., nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and 
potash. Such a complete statement gives considerable 
information as to the source and quality of the materials 
from which the constituents have been derived. For in- 
stance, if the analysis shows that three forms of nitro- 
gen are present, that the '^ total available " phosphoric 
acid is chiefly soluble in water, that the percentage of 
insoluble phosphoric acid is low, and that the potash 
is in the form of sulphate, it is good evidence that stan- 
ard high-grade goods have been used. 

The analysis cannot, however, give definite and positive 
information as to the source of organic nitrogen, whether 
from the best form, dried blood, or from the poorest, 
leather. Neither is it possible to tell absolutely how 
much of the insoluble phosphoric acid has been derived 
from organic or mineral sources, when materials from 
both sources have been used. 

Fertilizer Formulas. — A fertilizer formula indicates 
the kind and quantity of raw materials to be used to 
secure certain proportions of the fertilizer constituents. 
If it be desired to secure a mixture containing four per 
cent nitrogen, eight and eight-tenths per cent available 



ARTIFICIAL MANURES OR FERTILIZERS. 109 

phosphoric acid, and ten per cent of actual potash, the 
following materials would furnish it, assuming an aver- 
age analysis for them : — 

Formula No. 1. 

Containing Pounds of 
Phosphoric 
Materials, Amount. Nitrogen. ^^j^j Potash. 

Nitrate of Soda 500 lbs. 80 

Bone-black Superphosphate . 1,100 176 

Muriate of Potash .... 400 _200 

Total 2,000 80 176 200 

Guaranteed Analysis 4% 8.8% 10% 

A mixture containing two and one-half per cent of 

nitrogen, eight per cent of available phosphoric acid, and 

two per cent of potash may be made from the following 

materials : — 

Formula No. 2. 

Containing Pounds of 

Phosphoric 
Materials. Amount. Nitrogen. ^^^^ Potash. 

Nitrate of Soda 150 lbs. 24 

Dissolved Bone 1,300 26 160 

Muriate of Potash .... 80 40 

Land Plaster 470 

Total 2,000 50 160 40 

Guaranteed Analysis 2.5% 8% 2% 

No. 1 is a high-grade product, both in respect to 
quality of plant-food and concentration; while No. 2 is 
high-grade only in respect to quality. In order to get 
the plant-food distributed throughout the ton, it is neces- 
sary to add what is called a " make-weight " or diluent. 

High-grade mixtures cannot be made from low-grade 
materials. Low-grade mixtures cannot be made from 
high-grade materials without adding '^ make-weight." 
The advantages of high-grade products are concentration 
and high quality of plant-food. 



110 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

Special Formulas. — Frequently a large number of 
different formulas or brands are placed upon the market 
by the same manufacturers. The claimed purpose in 
the multiplication of brands is to meet the various de- 
mands of the consumer, as well as to furnish special 
preparations which shall provide a large proportion of 
that constituent which is believed to be of special ser- 
vice to the particular crop. 

For instance, special potato manures contain a much 
larger proportion of potash than those intended for gen- 
eral purposes. Formula No. 1 may be regarded as a 
special potato manure, while No. 2 may be regarded as 
a general formula. It must be remembered that the 
amount of plant-food applied frequently exercises a 
greater influence than mere proportion of the elements 
contained in it. The multiplication of brands is seldom 
of advantage to the consumer. 

The Use of Fertilizers. — To use fertilizers to the 
greatest advantage it is requisite that a great many 
points should be carefully studied. The character of the 
manure itself ; the soil and previous treatment, both in 
reference to manuring and cropping ; the climate ; the 
character of the crop to be grown, and the object of 
its growth, — are, perhaps, the chief factors to be taken 
into consideration. 

It has already been pointed out that the manurial 
constituents exist in various degrees of availability, from 
complete solubility in water to insolubility except in 
strong acids ; the character of both the soluble and the 
insoluble determines its usefulness to the plant. A 
correct knowledge of the action of these is, therefore, 



ARTIFICIAL MANURES OR FERTILIZERS. Ill 

of the first importance in order to economically use 
them. 

Nitrogenous Manures. — In reference to nitrogenous 
manures, it may be stated, that, because nitrogen in the 
form of a nitrate is immediately available, and because 
it is freely movable, and is not retained by the soil, 
nitrate should not be applied in any considerable amount 
before the plant is growing and ready to use it. While 
in the case of nitrogen in the form of ammonia, though 
it is completely soluble in water, it is absorbed by the 
soil, and requires an appreciable time to change into 
the form of a nitrate, and may, therefore, be applied 
without risk of loss a short time before it is likely to 
be used. 

On the other hand, nitrogen in organic forms shows 
a wide range of availability, the readily soluble blood 
ranking with the nitrate and ammonia ; while leather, 
wool waste, shoddy, and like products, which decay very 
slowly, should be applied a considerable time before the 
nitrogen in them is required. 

Phosphatic Manures. — In the case of phosphatic 
manures, the soluble forms, or superphosphates, should 
be applied but a short time before the plant requires 
the food, since their tendency in the soil is to revert to 
their original and insoluble forms. Coarse bone, ground 
mineral phosphates, and products of like character, decay 
slowly, and should be applied a long time before they 
are likely to be used. 

Potash Manures. — The potash manures from the 
Stassfurt mines are readily soluble ; they should, how- 
ever, be applied some time before they are required, in 



112 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

order to secure their complete distribution in the soil. 
On soils of a heavy character a fall application is recom- 
mended. 

In order to attain the best results from mixed fertili- 
zers, great care should be given to the proper adjustment 
of the various kinds and forms of the materials used. 

Kind of Soils. — Crops grown upon soils jwor in 
decaying vegetable matter are, as a rule, benefited by 
nitrogen manuring, while those upon soils rich in this 
substance are more benefited by phosphates and potash. 
Upon heavy soils phosphates are likely to be more 
beneficial than nitrogen, while the reverse is the case 
on light, dry soils. All sandy soils are, as a rule, defi- 
cient in potash, while clayey soils contain this element 
in larger quantities. 

Different Methods of Growth. — The difference in 
crops in reference to their capacity for acquiring food 
must also guide in the application of manures. Crops 
that have deep roots, and grow throughout a long sea- 
son, are able to acquire their necessary food where those 
of shallow roots and short seasons of growth would 
suffer hunger. 

Crops of the same class, too, resemble each other to 
some extent in their capacity for acquiring food. The 
grasses, for example, do not possess a strong power of 
assimilating nitrogen ; root crops possess a small capacity 
for acquiring and utilizing phosphoric acid ; while legu- 
minous plants are unable to readily assimilate potash ; 
hence these crops are, in the order given, most benefited 
by nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. 



THE ROTATION OF CROPS. 113 



CHAPTER X. 

The Rotation of Crops. 

The aim of the farmer, as well as those engaged in 
other industrial pursuits, is to derive the greatest pos- 
sible return both for his labor and money invested. The 
selection of definite lines of farming, or the growth of 
crops profitable for his conditions, becomes, then, of 
great importance. 

The Demand for Special Crops. — In the earlier 
history of the country, selection was practically limited 
to the staple crops of grain and hay. As the country 
developed and increased in wealth, larger demands were 
made for fruits, vegetables, and such special products 
as were in former times regarded as luxuries, and the 
production of which was confined to the areas of gardens 
and yards. 

At the present time, therefore, particularly in the 
Eastern States, general farming is the exception rather 
than the rule, and special farming is more profitable. 
The raising of hay, grain, vegetables, and fruits, and 
dairy products, now forms distinct lines. The adoption of 
either or any of these depends upon a variety of cir- 
cumstances, though chiefly upon the following : the condi- 
tions of soil and climatic influences ; the location of the 
farm in respect to markets ; and the probable profit. 



114 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

In any or all of these lines, however, certain groups 
of crops may be more profitable than others. This is 
because it has been found to be more desirable in the 
long run to have a variety, one following the other in 
a definite rotation. In the cotton and sugar producing 
States of the South, and the wheat growing States of the 
Northwest, rotation is least practised, while in the East- 
ern States and the Central West, rotations are the rule. 

The practice of growing different crops in rotation, 
while largely a matter of conditions, does possess cer- 
tain advantages, — based upon scientific principles, as 
having reference to the character of growth and feeding 
capacities of plants, and upon business principles, as hav- 
ing reference to a better division of labor and a more 
certain income. 

The Advantages of Rotations. — The advantages of 
rotations may be stated as follows : — 

1. The feeding capacities of plants differ, certain of 
them requiring more of one particular element than of 
another ; certain are surface feeders, and others send 
their roots deep into the subsoil. The growth of a 
variety of plants with different capacities, therefore, 
prolongs the period of profitable culture, or retards soil 
exhaustion. 

2. The growing of but one crop leaves the soil bare 
at certain seasons of the year, while a variety permits 
of a continuous growth and covering of the soil. Soils 
suffer loss when lying idle; they are improved by the 
growth of crops. 

3. The continuous growth of one crop renders it more 
liable to insect attack, and to the development of dis- 



THE BOTATION OF CROPS. 115 

eases that cause rot and blight. Crops lose vigor by 
being grown year after year, and thus are less able to 
withstand these attacks ; besides, a change of crops de- 
prives the pests of their particular kind of food, causing 
them to disappear or perish. 

4. Certain crops derive their nitrogen, phosphoric acid, 
and potash entirely from the soil ; the cereals grown 
for their grain, which is usually sold, belong to this 
class. Certain others, the clovers, peas, and beans, de- 
rive their nitrogen from the atmosphere ; their removal 
does not decrease the store of nitrogen in the soil. A 
rotation of crops, including the latter, therefore, lessens 
the necessity for nitrogenous manuring. 

5. A rotation of crops distributes labor throughout 
the season, thus giving continuous work for men and 
horses. In farming districts it is difficult to procure 
labor for short periods, while horses have to be kept 
throughout the year. 

6. A variety of crops marketed at different periods, 
permits a steady and regular income to the farmer, which 
enables him to do business on a smaller capital ; wages 
can be paid when due, and his supplies of seeds, fer- 
tilizers, implements, aud tools can be bought in the 
lowest market for cash. 

It has already been stated that the adoption of what 
are now " systems of crop rotpvtion " was largely a matter 
of growth, due to circumstances, and was not in the be- 
ginning based upon scientific principles. Science, how- 
ever, furnishes the reasons why rotations are useful, and 
why certain rotations are more useful than others. 

The Need of Rotations. — The need of rotation as 



116 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

a means of maintaining fertility was apparent in early 
times, when the manures were confined to the natural 
wastes of the farm, and when the growth of livestock 
and production of dairy products were industries of but 
little importance. It is less apparent now, when the 
materials furnishing available plant-food elements or arti- 
ficial manures are so abundant and cheap. Formerly, 
the proportion of active soil constituents was almost en- 
tirely dependent upon the natural forces that were 
brought to bear upon the dormant constituents to con- 
vert them into activity; under the conditions that exist 
now, it is frequently more economical to purchase the 
active constituents and apply them to the soil; in other 
words, to supplement natural forces by artificial. 

Bare Fallow. — In the older systems of rotation, it 
was customary to allow the land to lie bare, or ^'fallow," 
once in two or three years, in order that the natural 
agencies, sun, air, and water, might have free access, cause 
a more rapid decay of the soil particles, and make it more 
fertile, a practice extending the period of profitable crop- 
ping without manure. Sometimes the fields were left 
entirely to themselves, while in others they were fre- 
quently plowed or stirred in order to hasten the decay. 

Fallow Crops. — Following this method came ^^ crop- 
fallowing,'^ which is still practised; that is, instead of 
allowing the land to remain idle after a grain crop has 
been removed, a cultivable crop, as turnips or roots, is 
planted, or a catch crop, as clover, is seeded, the culti- 
vation of the one assisting in the decay of vegetable and 
mineral matter, thus improving for a subsequent grain 
crop ; while the other, because of its different method of 



THE liOTATION OF CROPS. 117 

growth and greater power of acquiring food, assists in 
renovating and improving the soil. 

Rotations to be Adopted. — The rules which govern 
the adoption of systems of rotation, under the conditions 
that now exist, are general and flexible, rather than spe- 
cific and fixed. To grow the crops that pay the greatest 
profit per acre should be the aim, and rotations should 
be modified in such a way that the least profitable crops 
should contribute as much as possible to the development 
of the most profitable. The character of soil, climate, 
availability of farm-labor, location, markets, — all have an 
influence in determining what the most profitable crop 
may be. 

For instance, hay may be high in price in a given 
locality : the soil is dry and sandy ; hay burns on the 
ground ; the yield is light, and it does not pay to raise 
it, even at high prices. In another locality sweet potatoes 
may bring three dollars per barrel : the land is a clay, 
cold and heavy ; it is suitable for hay, not sweet potatoes. 
Keverse the order, and both may be profitable crops. On 
the light, sandy land the rotations adopted should be such 
as contribute to the best development of the sweet pota- 
toes, and on the heavy clay, such as aid in preparing 
the soil to produce the largest hay crop. 

The climate, in the same manner, places a limit upon 
the production of certain crops. A short, cool season is 
not favorable for the corn crop ; it will not mature : hence 
corn should not be included in a rotation under such 
conditions. In many cases farms do not pay because 
their owners have not studied their conditions in refer- 
ence to paying crops, and adapted themselves to them. 



118 



FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGEICULTUliE. 



Rotation Courses. — The number of years intervening 
between the growth of crops in regular order is termed 
a "course." A rotation course may range from the sim- 
ple two-year to the more complex six or eight year 
course, though the four-year course is generally adopted. 
The poorer the land the shorter the course ; and the 
reverse, the better the land the longer the course, — are 
principles now well established. 

Taking the number of crops and periods of rotation 
possible, it is evident that the number of possible courses 
is too large to admit of definite description or comment. 
A few examples only are given and discussed, in order to 
more clearly illustrate the principles already pointed out. 

Examples of Rotation Courses. — These are adapted 
to what is termed " arable farming," where the live stock 
is only sufficient to provide labor and the necessities of 
the family. 



First Year. 


Second Year. 


Third Year. 


Fourth Year. 


1. Com. 


Oats. 


Wheat. 


Clover. 


2. Corn. 


Wheat. 


Clover. 




3. Corn. 


Potatoes. 


Wheat. 


Clover. 


4. Corn. 


Potatoes. 


Clover. 




5. Potatoes. 


Wheat. 


Clover. 





No. 1 is defective for two reasons : first, because uncul- 
tivated crops similar in character and capacity of obtain- 
ing plant-food succeed each other ; and second, because 
the oats preceding the wheat prevents a proper cultivation 
of the soil and preparation of the seed-bed for wheat. 
This rotation is widely used, mainly because it is eco- 
nomical of labor. Until very recently the custom was 
to plant the corn on clover-sod, follow with oats without 
manure, and then lime and manure for wheat. 



THE ROTATION OF CHOPS. • 119 

This custom is now rapidly changing, and for the bet- 
ter; viz., to manure the corn, and to provide artificial 
fertilizers for the oats and wheat. The latter method is 
more reasonable, since it permits of the removal of the 
manure from the yard to the field during the leisure of 
winter and spring, and the increased profit from its use 
is received in the year of its application. It is more 
economical of labor and capital. In all the rotations 
where clover follows wheat, it is usually seeded in the 
growing wheat in early spring. 

No. 2 is particularly adapted to light lands, as it 
admits of a more frequent repetition of the renovating 
clover crop. It is objectionable, however, where the 
seasons are short, since to wait for seeding the wheat 
until after the corn is fit to harvest does not allow it to 
make sufficient top to withstand the winter well ; besides, 
the early removal of the corn is very laborious and expen- 
sive. 

ISTo. 3 is a typical rotation, since the crops of cereals 
are separated by a root or clover crop. This rotation 
corresponds to the Norfolk system, so widely adopted in 
England; viz., turnips, barley, clover, wheat. In many 
sections of this country the potatoes are the best paying 
crop. The corn is planted on a clover-sod, and yard- 
manure liberally applied; the corn, being a gross feeder, 
utilizes sufficient food for its normal growth from the 
partial decay of the manure, roots, and stubble, and the cul- 
tivation of the corn puts the land in excellent tilth for 
the potatoes. Artificial manures are mainly used for this 
crop, frequently in large amounts, the residues from which 
guarantee maximum crops of both wheat and clover. 



120 FIBST PlUNCtPLES OF AGEICULTURE. 

In No. 4 wheat is dispensed with, and in No. 5, corn. 
Both are excellent where potatoes or root crops can be 
grown to advantage; and, if the land is naturally rich, 
the frequent tillage, and use of clover crops, provide an 
abundance of available food for maximum crops, provided 
the second crop of clover is not removed. 

No. 5 may be reduced to a two-year rotation by plow- 
ing the clover in spring before removing any crop. In 
these rotations barley may be substituted for oats, rye 
for wheat, and sweet potatoes or tomatoes for potatoes, 
without interfering with the usefulness of the rotation. 

Eotations on heavy land, where hay is an important 
crop, differ mainly from those already mentioned in hav- 
ing a larger number of crops. Timothy is seeded with 
the wheat in addition to clover in the spring. The first 
year after wheat, a mixed hay crop is gathered, which 
becomes almost pure timothy in the next season, and 
purer still in that following; hay is cut two or three 
years or longer, as the strength and character of soil per- 
mit. Cropping in this way is, however, exhaustive, and 
requires careful manuring. These rotations have refer- 
ence to what is termed "extensive practice," and do not 
provide for the manuring of each crop, though it does 
not follow that it cannot be made "intensive." 

Rotations in Market-gardening and on Dairy 
Farms. — In market-gardening and dairy-farming, ma- 
nures are relied on to a greater extent, and less attention 
is given to strict rotations. These lines of farming are 
more on the " intensive plan," the areas are limited, the 
cropping constant, the manuring liberal, and the crops as 
large as conditions of climate and season will permit. 



THE ROTATION OF CROPS. 121 

The market-gardener, as soon as one crop is removed, 
plants another, keeping the land constantly occupied. He 
does not depend upon natural fertility, but forces growth 
by the abundant supply of natural and artificial manures. 
The rotation practised is governed by the conditions 
which control the kind of crops he can grow to advan- 
tage, rather than by considerations of soil fertility. 

In dairying, the object is to provide a continuous sup- 
ply of food ; hence the rotation adopted is the one which 
will best meet this requirement. 



122 FIRST PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 



CHAPTER XI. 

The Selection of Seed ; Farm Crops and Their Classification ; 
Cereals ; Grasses ; Pastures ; Roots j Tubers ; and Market-gar- 
den Crops. 

Selection of Seed. — The kind of seed used exercises 
an important influence upon tlie yield and quality of the 
crop, and also saves the farmer losses due to a poor stand. 
The larger the proportion of living seed true to kind, the 
greater the chances of a perfect stand and a normal and 
healthy growth of crop. In the case of the larger seed, 
as the cereals, it is not so difiicult to determine quality 
as in the case of certain grasses and garden seeds ; here 
a careful examination and testing are required. 

Good Seed. — The term " good seed " implies that any 
given lot should show a large proportion of mature seed, 
true to kind and variety, and a small proportion of impu- 
rities and adulterants. " Mature seed " are those that 
have fully ripened, and are capable of performing well 
all of the functions of germination ; that is, they are capa- 
ble of using the food stored up in them, and developing 
vigorous and healthy young plants. " Immature seed " 
are those that have not fully developed or ripened, and 
can only partially perform the functions of germination. 
The young plant lacks strength and vigor. 

Impurities. — Impurities include all foreign matter, 



SELECTION OF SEED ; FABM CROPS. 123 

both injurious and harmless, that may be present in the 
seed purchased, as seeds not genuine, dirt, dust, weed-seed, 
chaff, and diseased seed. The j^resence of weed-seed per- 
haps results on the whole in the greatest loss and annoy- 
ance, — in the first place, the loss of return from land 
taken up by the weeds, hence a reduction in crop ; and 
second, the difficulty and expense of eradicating the weeds 
when well established. 

Adulteration. — Adulteration of seed includes, first, 
the substitution of cheaper seed for the more valuable, 
which is frequently practised in the case of mixed seeds 
that resemble each other, and second, the removal of the 
evidences of age or disease. Seed that are musty or dark 
are sometimes sweetened and brightened by bleaching 
with fumes of sulphur. 

Quality of Seed. — The quality of genuine seed is 
influenced by age, size, weight, and smell. Old seed are 
less likely to germinate than new; the loss of vitality 
is gradual, though more rapid in unripe than in well- 
ripened seed; the larger and heavier seeds also die more 
slowly than the smaller and lighter ones. 

The seed of the cereals and grasses lose germinating 
power and vigor rapidly after the first year ; though alive, 
they germinate and grow slowly, thus causing a loss of 
time at the beginning of the season, and the slow growth of 
the plant at its most tender stage increases the tendency 
to disease and insect attack. 

Seed may also be killed by a too rapid or too complete 
removal of water from them ; hence artificial drying, if 
improperly conducted, that is, if too great heat is used, 
may result in the death of the germ. 



124 FIB ST PBINCIPLES OF AGBICULTURE. 

If a crop from which seed is to be gathered is stored 
before thoroughly dry in a damp place, it is liable to be- 
come hot, which destroys in a great degree the germinating 
power of the seed. Crops from which seed is to be se- 
cured should be carefully dried, and stored in a dry place. 

Change of Seed. — The improved varieties of farm 
crops of the same kind have been developed by the careful 
selection of the best seed of these crops grown under the 
most favorable conditions of climate, season, soil, and man- 
agement. The natural tendency of the plant, even under 
favorable conditions, is to go back to its original and in- 
ferior state ; hence, when the conditions of growth are 
unfavorable, this tendency is increased. A change of cli- 
mate, a season too cool or too hot, too dry or too wet, a 
poor soil, lack of care in cultivation, — all aid in increas- 
ing this backward tendency; the conditions are not per- 
fect, and the seed, as it is commonly expressed, "runs 
out," and a change becomes necessary. 

In making the change, seed should never be taken 
from good to poorer conditions, but rather from poor to 
good; that is, the seed from crops grown under good 
conditions of climate, soil, and management > will not re- 
tain their character so well when grown under condi- 
tions poorer in these respects, while the seed from crops 
which flourish well under poor conditions are likely to 
not only retain their character, but improve when changed 
to good conditions. 

It is also true that seed from crops that do well in rig- 
orous climates are more likely to improve when brought 
under more favorable conditions in this respect than 
when those that do well in a warm climate are brought 



SELECTION OF SEED; FARM CROPS. 125 

into a colder climate. In other words, in changing 
seed, particularly of the cereals, they should be secured 
from the North rather than from the South. " These are, 
however, general suggestions, to be used as guides rather 
than as specific and definite rules. 

Seed-Testing. — The number of pure seed and the 
germinating power are the two factors which determine 
the number of plants that may be obtained from a given 
quantity, rather than the bushels of seed sown. Seed- 
testing includes, therefore, a test of purity and of ger- 
minating power. 

Purity. — The purity may be tested by taking a def- 
inite weight to represent the product, and separating the 
foreign matter, either by hand or by means of a sieve, 
then weighing the remainder of pure seed. For example : 

Total weight taken . 100 grains or grams. 
Weight of pure seed . 95 '' " 

Weight of impurities . 5 " " 

The amount of pure seed is, therefore, 95 per cent, 
while the amount of impurities is 5 per cent. 

It is better in stating the impurity, consisting of for- 
eign seeds, weed-seeds, etc., to use the number of seed in- 
stead of their weight, as it gives a better idea of the 
possible damage from its seeding. 

Germinating Power. — In testing the germinating 
power, only the seed true to kind are tested; hence, a 
high germinating power is not in itself sufficient evi- 
dence of quality. It must be accompanied by a statement 
as to purity; for instance, if the germinating power is 
ninety per cent, and the purity only twenty-five per cent, 



126 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, 

the quality of the seed is low, since out of one hundred 
pounds only twenty-two and five-tenths pounds consist of 
pure germinating seed. Good seed shows a high percen- 
tage of both purity and germinating power. 

To test germination, two lots of at least one hundred 
seeds each are selected, and placed under conditions favor- 
able for germination ; viz., moisture, warmth, and air. A 
box containing a thin layer of fine soil, kept well moist- 
ened, and in a warm place, answers the purpose nicely. 
The chief precautions to observe are to keep the material 
moist and the temperature between 80° to 90° F. 

Plants are classified by botanists into families or nat- 
ural orders; by farmers into groups, made distinct by 
methods of rotation or other local causes. 

Botanical Classification. — This is a useful guide 
to the farmer in indicating habits of growth, as well as 
methods of manuring and management, since plants of 
common origin or ancestry, though differing in outward 
form, are quite likely to be benefited by the same kinds 
of food, to be subject to the same class of diseases, and 
to be attacked by the same kind of insects. The differ- 
ent families also include a number of plants not useful 
as farm or garden crops, though all possess certain char- 
acteristics in common. 

The Grass Family. — The first natural order in point 
of usefulness is the grass family. This includes the ce- 
reals, wheat, rye, oats, barley, corn, and rice, valuable 
chiefly for their seed or grain ; and the grasses, valuable as 
hay and pastures, of which timothy, orchard grass, rye 
grass, blue grass, and red-top, are prominent examples. 

The Family which includes the Potato, valuable 



SELECTION OF SEED; FARM CBOPS. 127 

for starchy food, the tomato and egg-plant, useful for 
their fruit, and tobacco, a plant of great commercial value, 
is also very important. Many plants of this family are 
poisonous, of which " henbane " and deadly " nightshade " 
are examples ; in fact, the fruit and vine of the potato 
contain poisonous principles. In point of food value the 
potato stands next to the cereals. 

The Sweet Potato belongs to the morning-glory fam- 
ily, and is the chief food-plant belonging to this order. 

The Legume or Clover Family includes a very large 
number of plants, as herbs, shrubs, and trees. A distin- 
guishing feature of this order is the formation of seed 
in a pod or legume. Those in which the seed or grain 
is used as food, as peas, beans, and lentils, are called 
" pulse ; " hence this name has been extended to all the 
food plants of this order. Leguminous crops are called 
"pulse crops." 

The other plants of this family, useful as hay, green 
forage, or pasture, are the various clovers, white or Dutch 
clover, red clover, alsike or Swedish clover, and crimson 
or scarlet clover, also lucerne or alfalfa, vetches, lupins, 
serradella, and sanfoin. These plants are among the 
most valuable of our forage crops. They have strong 
foraging powers for mineral constituents, and are also 
able to secure the nitrogen necessary for their growth 
from the air ; thus they enrich, rather than impoverish, 
the soil of the most important element, — nitrogen. 

The Turnip Family includes among the edible plants, 
turnips, the various varieties of cabbage, as cauliflower, 
kale, kohlrabi, mustard, radish, horseradish, and watercress, 
and the forage plants, swedes and rape. This order also 



128 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

includes a large number of weeds, of which shepherd's- 
purse, charlock, and wild radish are prominent examples. 

The Beet Family includes the food-plants, garden- 
beets, sugar-beets, and spinach, and the mangel-wurzel, 
an important fodder plant. The sugar-beet is of great 
importance in Germany and France as a commercial 
source of sugar, while the mangel-wurzel is extensively 
raised as a fodder crop. 

The Melon Family is extensive, though it does not 
include any strictly farm crops. Cucumbers, melons, 
pumpkins, and gourds are prominent examples of this 
order : " cucurbs " is a term also applied to this group 
of plants. 

The Carrot Family includes carrots, parsnips, parsley, 
and celery, while lettuce belongs to the dandelion family, 
and the onion and asparagus to the lily family. 

The Rose Famiily is an important natural order. It 
includes herbs, shrubs, and trees, to which belong the 
most important of our fruits. One type is represented 
by the plum, peach, cherry, apricot, nectarine, and almond ; 
another, by the raspberry, blackberry, and dewberry; and 
still another, by the apple and pear. The bush-fruits, 
gooseberry and currant, are both members of another 
distinct natural order. 

Agricultural Classification. — While the grouping of 
plants by the method described is useful, an agricultural 
classification, which groups the various crops according to 
their similarity of growth, management, and treatment, is 
also convenient to the farmer ; and the following method 
permits of a logical discussion of the principles involved 
in their growth : — 



SELECTION OF SEED; FARM CROPS. 129 

1. Cereal crops: Wheat, rye, oats, barley, and corn. 

2. Forage crops: Grasses and clovers for forage hay and pasture. 

3. Root crops: Turnips, swedes, carrots, and mangels. 

4. Tuber crops: White potato and sweet potato. 

5. Miscellaneous crops: Market-garden and fruit crops. 

Cereal Crops. — The chief object in the growth of 
cereals is to obtain the grain or seed. They are all 
annuals, though their natural period, or time of growth, 
differs, certain of them requiring a longer time for their 
growth and maturity than others. In the case of wheat, 
rye, oats, and barley, the natural period of vegetation has 
been changed by careful selection and breeding, so that 
we have both winter and spring varieties, the former 
seeded in the fall, and the latter in the sx3ring. The 
winter varieties of wdieat and rye, and the spring varie- 
ties of oats and barley, are more generally grown. Indian 
corn, or maize, is seeded in spring only. 

The Root System. — In the cereals, the roots branch 
just below the surface, a.nd each shoot produces feeding- 
roots, which distribute themselves in every- direction to 
gather food and directly nourish the plant. The roots of 
the cereals, though they are regarded as shallow feeders, 
also penetrate to considerable depths, — thirty-six inches 
or more, — the depth corresponding to some extent with 
the period of growth, winter wheat and rye showing the 
deepest roots, and oats and barley, seeded in spring, the 
shallowest. 

The character of the soil also exercises an influence 
in this respect. The deeper the root, the more food is 
acquired ; and the power to resist drouth and other un- 
favorable conditions is proportionately increased. A soil 
too dense and hard prevents the penetration and develop- 



130 FIRST PBINCIPLES OF AGEICULTUBE. 

ment of the root system. The root formation of the 
winter cereals is encouraged by close contact with moist 
earth, hence a soil of a compact nature is desirable for 
their normal growth ; loose, shifting sands are unfavor- 
able, moist clay loams are favorable. 

Method of Feeding. — The general tendency of the 
cereals is to absorb food from lower layers of the soil 
as the plant grows older ; that is, the roots near the 
plant die ; and only the fibrous roots at a distance and 
in the lower layers of soil possess the power of absorbing 
food : hence, to ensure maximum and continuous growth 
throughout the whole period of life, the entire surface 
soil must be enriched. 

Power of Acquiring Food. — The cereals are able to 
acquire food from the insoluble phosphate and potash 
compounds of the soil in a greater degree than root 
crops. They are on this account called " voracious feed- 
ers." Oats and rye possess this characteristic more 
largely than wheat or corn. Where the climate is suit- 
able, oats and rye will — other conditions being equal — 
thrive proportionately better on poor soil than wheat 
or corn. 

These crops are unable to feed to any extent upon 
the insoluble nitrogen of the soil ; they absorb the nitro- 
gen necessary chiefly in the form of nitrates. This form 
of nitrogen must, therefore, be directly applied, or the 
soil must have been previously supplied with nitrogenous 
materials that decay readily. 

On soils well supplied with mineral constituents, wheat, 
oats, and rye — both because they are uncultivated crops, 
and because their greatest development is in the early 



SELECTION OF SEED; FARM CROPS. 131 

summer, before the conditions are favorable for the rapid 
change of organic nitrogen into nitrates — are more bene- 
fited by a direct application of nitrates than corn, which, 
besides being a cultivated crop, makes its greatest growth 
in late summer, when the decay and consequent nitrifica- 
tion of the organic matter is most active. 

Soil Exhaustion. — The cereals are exhaustive crops, 
because the food constituents gathered are largely trans- 
ferred from the stem and leaf, and concentrated in the 
grain, which is sold from the farm. 

Forage Crops ; Grasses. — Nearly all varieties of 
grasses are perennial, though the length of life depends 
upon the method of cropping and character of soil. 
Where the grass is allowed to seed, it dies quicker than 
when it is pastured or cut before maturity, because the 
depth of root is measured to some extent by the length 
of top. On poor, dry soils, also, the life is shorter than 
upon moist soils of fair fertility. 

Methods of Growth. — The grasses send out their 
fibrous roots into the surface soil in the same manner 
as the cereals, though they differ from the cereals in 
forming each year a set of buds just below the surface 
of the ground, which become active in the late summer, 
and develop new shoots and roots ; as this budding 
ceases, the i^lants die. Those which produce the great- 
est number of branches, and continue the process for a 
succession of years, are the most valuable permanent 
grasses ; those that form their branches in compact tufts 
have less hold upon the ground, and are more liable to 
be uprooted by animals, and to be destroyed by unfavor- 
able conditions of soil and season, than those which pos- 



132 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

sess a loose-branching system. A mixture of the tuft 
and loose-growing grasses is, as a rule, better than either 
singly. 

Food Requirements. — The chief object in the growth 
of grasses is to obtain the nutrition contained in leaf 
and stem in the form of pasture, forage, or hay. Nitro- 
gen, which promotes this form of growth, is an important 
constituent, and it is essential to provide a liberal sup- 
ply, either directly, as nitrate of soda, or in organic forms, 
which decay more or less rapidly. 

The grasses resemble the cereals in their power of ac- 
quiring mineral food ; hence clay soils, which are rich 
in the minerals, are naturally well adapted for their 
growth. Except when seed is grown, or hay is sold, 
the grasses are not regarded as exhaustive crops. 

Clovers. — The clovers are grouped with the grasses 
because usually grown for the same purpose, — for pas- 
ture, forage, or hay. They, however, belong to a family 
of plants which possesses characteristics very different 
from the grasses, both in reference to method of growth 
and composition of product. The varieties usually grown 

are : — 

Scarlet or Crimson Clover, an annual. 

Red or Broad Clover, a biennial. 

Alsike or Swedish Clover, a triennial. 

White or Dutch Clover, a perennial. 

Of these the red and white are more extensively grown 
than the others. 

Methods of Growth. — The red, alsike, and crimson 
clovers all possess a tap-root which penetrates downward 
to considerable depths ; and as it descends it throws out 
root-fibres into the different layers of soil ; these gather 



SELECTION OF SEED; FARM CROPS. 133 

the food which passes through the tap-root into the 
branches. The branches are formed from buds, which 
depend for their food upon the tap-root and its feeders, 
the fibrous roots. From spring seedings of clover the 
buds begin to develop in the late summer, lie dormant 
through the winter, branch forth in the spring, and de- 
velop into the mature plant. 

With the exception of the annual crimson clover, the 
process continues two, three, or more years, as the case 
may be. Crimson clover is usually seeded in the late 
summer or fall ; it develops the buds in the spring, and 
dies after maturing the plant. 

In white clover the stem creeps along just under the 
surface, throwing out roots at frequent intervals, which 
penetrate the soil and gather food that is carried directly 
into the stem, and by it to the branches. 

Power of Acquiring Food. — The clovers readily ac- 
quire food from the mineral constituents of the soil, and 
differ from the cereals in being able to acquire their nitro- 
gen from the air; hence on most soils the application of 
this element is not so essential for their growth. The 
clovers demand an abundance of potash and lime. 

Soil Improvers. — The clovers are not exhaustive 
crops, but rather soil improvers. The nitrogen gathered 
and stored as organic substance in roots and stubble en- 
riches the soil in humus and nitrogen, while the method 
of growth, viz., the formation of large tap-roots, which 
penetrate deeply, materially improves the physical char- 
acter of soils. 

Root Crops. — Turnips, carrots, parsnips, beets, and 
mangels are biennials. The first year or period of growth 



134 FIRST PIUNCIFLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

is the storage or vegetative period, and the second, the 
period of seed-making. 

Eoot crops are all provided with tap or storage roots, 
and hence they flourish well only in deep, mellow soils. 
They are supplied with absorbing roots, which spring 
mainly from the lower end, spread into the soil, and 
gather the food. The chief supply of food is needed late 
in the season, when the formation of tap-root is most 
rapid. 

These plants cannot make ready use of the insoluble 
mineral constituents of the soil; hence, in order to insure 
full crops, they must be liberally supplied with available 
food. Of the three classes of fertilizing materials, the 
phosphates are especially suitable for turnips, while the 
slower-growing beets and carrots require an abundance 
of nitrogen in quickly available forms. 

Tuber Crops. — The white potato tuber is not a root, 
but an enlarged underground stem. The true feeding- 
roots are produced by the underground portion of the 
main stem. The extensive growth of the plant under- 
ground requires that the soil shall be loose and open, 
in order to permit the free entrance and circulation of 
both air and water. Potatoes, like root crops, do not 
possess strong foraging powers. The food must be in a 
soluble and available condition, in order to insure maxi- 
mum production. Where soils are suitable, potash seems 
to be the ingredient especially useful in the manures 
applied, as it is a potash-demanding plant. 

The sweet-potato tuber is an enlarged root, and not a 
stem, as is the case with the white potato. The plant 
is especially adapted to warm, dry soils ; and, while it 



SELECTION OF SEED; FARM CROPS. 135 

thrives well on soils too poor and sanely for the white 
potato, it must be well supplied with the mineral con- 
stituents, particularly potash. 

Market-Garden Crops. — These include a large num- 
ber which are distinguished not so much by their place 
or method of growth as the object of their production ; 
viz., earliness and succulence, rather than maturity of 
crop. Lettuce, beets, spinach, radishes, onions, cabbage, 
turnips, celery, asparagus, tomatoes, egg-plant, cucumbers, 
melons, peas, beans, sweet corn, and many others, are 
included under market-garden crops. 

To accomplish the two particular objects of their growth 
requires a deep, warm soil, well supplied with vegetable 
matter and with available forms of plant-food. Since 
nitrogen is the element which encourages and stimulates 
leaf and stem growth, its application, particularly in the 
form of nitrates which are immediately available, is es- 
pecially useful for all of these crops; and though peas 
and beans belong to the legume family, they are materi- 
ally benefited in their early growth by a supply of soil 
nitrogen. 

Fruit Crops. — These differ from other crops in that 
there must be a longer season of preparation, in which 
the growth shall be so directed as to prepare the tree for 
the proper development of a different kind of product; 
namely, the fruit. The fruit, too, differs very materially 
in its character from that of ordinary farm crops, in that 
its growth and development require a whole season; it is 
necessary that there shall be a constant transfer of the 
nutrition from the tree to the fruit throughout the grow- 
ing-season. The growth for each succeeding year of both 



186 FIB ST PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

tree and fruit is, too, dependent upon the nutrition stored 
up in the bud and branches, as well as that which may 
be derived directly from the soil. 

Soils that are naturally well adapted for fruit- 
growing must possess a good physical character; that 
is, they must be sufficiently open and porous to permit 
the penetration and growth of the roots, as well as a 
free movement of air and water, and they must contain 
nitrogen and the mineral constituents, lime, potash, and 
phosphoric acid, in considerable amounts. 

The first object should be to secure a good tree, though 
it is not wood growth alone that should be kept in mind, 
but the kiiid of growth as well ; that is, it must not only 
be vigorous, but well matured. Well-grown trees some- 
times produce poor fruit, but poor trees never produce 
good fruit. 

Manures for Fruits. — In the first place, there should 
be sufficient nitrogen to provide for an abundant leaf 
growth earhj in the season, since the tree and fruit are 
dependent for food both upon the leaves and upon the 
roots. There should be an abundance of potash and phos- 
phoric acid and lime, in order to secure a normal and 
solid growth of stem and branch, which carry the fruit- 
spurs, and the food necessary for their first development 
in the spring, as well as to provide for the proper growth 
and ripening of the fruit. 



GROWTH OF ANIMALS; ANIMAL FOOD 137 



CHAPTEK XII. 

The Growth of Animals ; The Constituents of Animals and Ani- 
mal Food ; The Character and Composition of Fodders and Feeds. 

In our study of the growth of plants, it was shown 
that, with the exception of the food stored in the seed, 
the plant was built up of single chemical elements, and 
that these were derived from sources outside of itself, 
viz., the atmosphere and soil, and formed by the living 
plant into organized plant substances. The growing of a 
plant, therefore, is a constructive process ; elements that 
exist separately are gathered from different sources, and 
combined and fixed in special forms. 

The growth of the animal is more complicated. It is 
built up and nourished by the consumption of substances 
ready formed in plants, or which have been derived from 
them. It is a double process, — first, a disorganizing, or 
tearing apart of these substances formed in the plant; 
and second, a building or forming process in which they 
are brought together again, and fixed in the form of 
flesh and bone. 

Composition of the Animal Body. — The animal 
body, therefore, is composed of substances or elements 
common to the plants from which it was directl}^ or in- 
directly derived. It may be divided, first, into two 
classes of products, water and dry substance. 



138 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

Water. — This is an important constituent. It is 
essential to the proper distribution of the nourishing fluids 
throughout the system, and usually constitutes more than 
one-half of the total weight of the live animal. As is 
the case with plants, it is contained in the greatest 
amounts in the young or immature, and decreases as 
growth proceeds, and maturity is reached. It is possi- 
ble to remove it from animal substances without entirely 
destroying their form, thus differing from the constitu- 
ents that constitute the dry matter; these cannot be 
removed without destroying the character of the sub- 
stances themselves. Here, too, is a striking analogy 
between plant and animal. 

Dry Matter. — This may also be divided into two 
general classes, — first, that which is organic or volatile, 
or that portion capable of being destroyed, or converted 
into gaseous substances, by means of heat ; and second, 
ash or inorganic, mineral, or non-volatile, or that por- 
tion which cannot be destroyed or dispelled by means 
of heat. 

Organic Substances. — These are usually divided 
into two general classes, — first, non-nitrogenous, or those 
free from nitrogen, consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen only ; and second, nitrogenous, those containing 
nitrogen in addition to the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 

Non-Nitrogenous Substances. — The chief of these is 
fat, a substance extremely rich in the element carbon, 
and a very important constituent of food. It is found 
distributed throughout the various organs of the animal 
body, though mainly enclosed in cells on the kidneys 
and between the muscular fibtes. The fat contained in 



GROWTU OF ANIMALS; ANIMAL FOOD. 139 

the various kinds of animals, which is a whitish, oily 
substance, differs but little in appearance, though some- 
what in composition. 

Nitrogenous Substances. — These consist chiefly of 
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, though phos- 
phorus and sulphur are always present in small amounts. 
This class may be subdivided into three groups : 1. Albu- 
minoids ; 2. Gelatinoids ; 3. Horny Matter. 

Albuminoids. — These are the most important, because 
animal life is dependent chiefly upon them and the or- 
gans composed of them, and because they furnish the 
material out of which the other groups are formed. They 
are found in various forms in the body, the chief of 
which are albumen, fibrin, and casein. These, while dif- 
fering widely in appearance, agree in their chemical com- 
position, in that each in a pure, dry state contains about 
sixteen per cent of nitrogen, and from one to one and 
five-tenths per cent of sulphur; albumen is represented 
by the white of egg, fibrin by the white solid remaining 
after the red color of coagulated blood is washed out, 
while casein forms the basis of cheese. 

Gelatinoids. — These form the nitrogenous substances 
of bone, skin, and cartilage, and the connective tissue of 
the animal body. They may be extracted by boiling 
with water ; the resultant product is glue. Their com- 
position is similar to the albuminoids, in that on the 
average they contain about sixteen per cent nitrogen, 
the cartilage containing less, and the bones and skin 
more, nitrogen than the albuminoids. 

Horny Matter. — The hair, horn, hoofs, claws, nails, 
wool, and feathers are constituted mainly of horny matter. 



140 FIEST PniNCIPLES OF AGBtCULTURE. 

The composition of horny matter is quite uniform, and 
is similar to albumen in content of nitrogen, though con- 
taining more sulphur. 

Inorganic Matter or Ash. — The ash constitutes a 
very small part of the total weight of animals. It ranges 
from one and eight-tenths per cent to three per cent in 
swine, and from four and five-tenths per cent to five 
per cent in cattle. The ash constituents are great-est in 
lean animals, and least in fat animals. Of the different 
parts of animals, the dried bones contain the largest 
portions, reaching fifty per cent in the bones of young 
animals, and as high as eighty-five per cent in mature 
animals. Bone-ash consists almost entirely of phosphate 
of lime. Other very important constituents of the ash 
are potash, soda, and chlorine. 

Animal Food. — The animal body, consisting of the 
two classes of substances, the nitrogenous and non-nitro- 
genous, demands the same classes from the food. These 
latter correspond in kind to those described as contained 
in the animal body, with the addition of carbohydrates ; 
viz., 1. Albuminoids 5 2. Eats ; 3, Carbohydrates ; 4. Min- 
eral Salts. 

Albuminoids. — The albuminoids of a feed include 
vegetable albumen and fibrin, as well as other substances 
which resemble in composition the albuminoids of the 
animal body. The term " protein " is frequently used 
to designate this class of substances when contained in 
food. 

The various albuminoids vary somewhat in their com- 
position. They are distinguished by their high and quite 
uniform content of nitrogen ; and, though differences exist 



GROWTH OF ANIMALS; ANIMAL FOOD. 141 

in them, it is believed that they are quite uniform in 
their value as nutrients. They are not only the most 
important of the food compounds, but are indispensable, 
as they are the sole source directly of the albuminoids 
in the body of the plant-eating animal. 

Other nitrogenous compounds are also contained in 
small quantities in most plants, though they are rela- 
tively unimportant as sources of nourishment. 

Fat. — The fat or oil contained in plants agrees closely 
in chemical composition with that contained in animals. 
Fats contain a much larger proportion of carbon, and 
less of oxygen, than the . carbohydrates. Fat exists in 
all plants, and in some seeds, as flax and cotton, in such 
quantities as to make them of considerable commercial 
importance as sources of oil. 

Carbohydrates. — These agree closely in composition. 
They consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen only, and 
derive their name from the fact that the hydrogen and 
oxygen in them always exist in the same proportions as 
they exist in water. Cellulose, or woody fibre, and starch 
are the most abundant of the carbohydrates, though the 
sugars and gums are also well-known members of this 
group. 

Cellulose is the substance which composes the cell walls 
or woody part of the plant. It is seldom pure, except in 
young plants. In trees where great strength is needed, 
the cell walls become thick and hard, and joined with the 
cellulose is a harder substance called "lignin." In ordi- 
nary farm plants the cellulose exists in greater propor- 
tions in the ripe straw, and in the stems and husks of the 
various plants, than in the seeds. This fibrous material 



142 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

is usually white in color, and is odorless and tasteless. 
Manufactured flax and cotton, and unsized paper derived 
from them, are good examples of nearly pure cellulose. 
It is not readily soluble, and is capable of only partial 
digestion. It is identical with starch in chemical com- 
position, and may be converted first into dextrine, then 
into grape sugar, by suitable treatment with acids or 
alkalies. 

Starch is a very abundant substance ; it is found in all 
plants, and in nearly all parts of them. The cereal 
grains, and the dry matter of root and tuber crops, are 
especially rich in this substance ; and because of its 
abundance and ease of digestion it is one of the most 
important of the non-nitrogenous substances. It is readily 
converted into dextrine and grape sugar by treatment 
with acids ; in fact, the grape sugar or glucose of com- 
merce is largely derived from the starch of corn. 

Sugars are of four kinds, — cane, milk, grape, and fruit 
sugar: these differ but little in composition; all resem- 
ble each other in their properties. Cane sugar is derived 
from sugar-cane and sugar-beet, and milk sugar from 
the milk of the cow, while grape and fruit sugars usu- 
ally occur together in the juices of plants, sweet fruits, 
and in honey. These are all readily soluble in water, 
and easily digested ; and, although occurring in small 
quantities in ordinary feeds, they are very important, 
because formed in large quantities from other carbo- 
hydrates in digestion. 

The gums exist in small amounts in plants used for 
animal food, and are relatively unimportant food com- 
pounds. 



GEOWTU OF ANIMALS ; ANIMAL FOOD. 143 

Mineral Salts. — These are contained in ordinary fod- 
ders in sufficient quantities to supply the needs of the 
animal body. 

The Chemical Analyses of Animal Foods. — By 
means of chemical analyses the amount of moisture and 
of the various groups of food compounds described as 
contained in a food, are determined; viz., albuminoids, 
fats, carbohydrates, and mineral matter. This grouping 
is, however, quite incomplete, though serving an excel- 
lent purpose in indicating feeding value, and as a means 
by which a comparison may be made of the various food 
products. 

Water or Moisture. — Water or moisture is deter- 
mined by drying at a temperature of boiling water. 

Crude Protein. — The nitrogenous substances are found 
by determining the nitrogen, and multiplying the percen- 
tage found by the factor 6.25, on the assumption that 
all of the nitrogen is in the form of albuminoids, which 
contain on the average sixteen per cent of nitrogen. The 
substance found in this manner is called "crude protein." 
In many cases, however, the nitrogenous substances, not 
in the form of albuminoids, as amides and amines, and 
contained in considerable amounts in immature plants, 
are determined separately and deducted from the total 
crude protein found, in which cases the results are stated 
as " true albuminoids " and as " non-albuminoids." 

Fat. — The content of fat is determined by extract- 
ing with ether, or other solvents, and the result is stated 
as crude fat or extractive matter, since other substances, 
as gums and coloring matter, are extracted to some ex- 
tent along with the fat. These may, however, be sep- 



144 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

arated; and when this is done the result is stated as 
"pure fat." 

Crude Fibre or Cellulose. — Crude fibre or cellulose 
is determined by boiling the substance with weak acids 
and alkalies, which dissolve the other constituents con- 
tained in it. The residue is called " crude fibre," rather 
than " cellulose," since it contains all the woody sub- 
stance of the plant, including "lignin.'^ 

Ash or Mineral Matter. — The ash or mineral mat- 
ter is determined by carefully burning the substance, by 
which means the organic vegetable matter is completely 
removed. 

Nitrogen-free Extract. — The nitrogen-free extract, 
which includes starch, sugar, and gums, is usually deter- 
mined by difference; that is, by subtracting the sum of 
the water, crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre, and crude 
ash from one hundred. This group, together with the 
crude fibre, makes the total carbohydrates. 

Statement of Analysis. — An example of the usual 
method of reporting an analysis of a food is here 
given : — 

Water l<'5-3 per cent. 

Crude Fat (extractive matter) 3.3 

Crude Protein (nitrogenous substances) .... 12.3 

Crude Ash (mineral matter) 6.2 

Crude Fibre (cellulose and lignin) 24.8 

Nitrogen-free Extract (starch, sugars, gums, etc.) 38.1 

Functions of the Animal Body. — The object of 
feeding is to furnish material for maintaining life, and 
for building up the animal body; and each of the com- 
pounds of the food exerts a specific function in the pro- 
cess, though alone they are incapable of completely 



GEOWTII OF ANIMALS; ANIMAL FOOD. 145 

nourishing the body and maintaining life. The change 
of the food compounds or constituents into similar 
animal products is accomplished in the living animal 
by a series of what are termed "nutritive processes or 
functions," and include digestion, circulation, respiration, 
secretion, and absorption. 

Digestion. — By digestion the solid matter of the food 
is brought into a form capable of being absorbed by 
the blood. Soluble food compounds, as sugar, are ab- 
sorbed without digestion. Digestion is accomplished by 
means of the digestive organs, — the mouth, stomach, and 
intestines. In the mouth the food is ground fine and 
mixed with the saliva, which, besides softening the food, 
makes it alkaline, and starts a fermentation, which 
changes the starch into sugar; when the masticated 
food passes into the stomach — the fourth stomach in 
the case of animals that chew their cuds — it comes in 
contact with the gastric juice. This is an acid substance 
which acts chiefly upon the albuminoids, converting them 
into substances called "peptones," which are capable of 
passing through the lining membranes of the stomach. 
The food remains in the stomach a sufficient time to 
bring every portion in contact with the gastric juice ; it 
then passes into the first intestine, where it meets with 
other alkaline secretions, pancreatic juice and bile, which 
complete the digestion of the starch, albuminoids, and 
fat. The absorption of the dissolved constituents of the 
food now remaining takes place finally in the small in- 
testines ; the soluble product passes into the blood, which 
then nourishes the whole body ; the undigested portion 
is expelled in the form of manure. 



146 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGHICULTURE. 

Respiration or Breathing. — The air taken into the 
lungs consists chiefly of oxygen and nitrogen. When it 
passes out it has lost about one-quarter of its oxygen, 
and also contains a large amount of carbonic acid ; the 
oxygen has been absorbed by the blood, and the carbonic 
acid carried out is the product of the oxidation or burn- 
ing of old tissue. By this oxidation the heat of the 
body is maintained, and kept in a healthy condition. 

Excretion. — The products of oxidation of the animal 
tissues are carbonic acid, water, urea, and mineral salts. 
The carbonic acid, as already seen, is chiefly removed by 
the lungs, and to some extent by the skin ; the urea and 
salts are removed by the kidneys, and the water by all 
of the organs of excretion. 

"What is Food ? — It is thus seen that, in the processes 
of life the substances contained in the food are changed 
into animal product, and that this change is always 
accompanied by loss. Any material capable of replacing 
this loss, in whole or in part, is called a " fodder " or a 
"feed;" and any single compound, like albumen or fat, 
is called a "nutrient." The first essential in a feed is, 
then, nutritious compounds ; these must, however, be pal- 
atable, that is, capable of being eaten, and must possess 
a certain bulk, in order to properly distend the stomach 
and supply the needs of the animal in this respect, and 
must be capable of, at least, partial digestion. 

Fodders and Feeds. — Common usage has divided 
animal foods into two classes, coarse fodders and con- 
centrated fodders, or fodders and feeds. By fodders are 
commonly understood those products whose chief charac- 
teristic is bulk ; hay, cornstalks, and straw, belong to 



GROWTH OF ANIMALS; ANIMAL FOOD. 147 

this class. By feeds are understood the more highly 
concentrated materials ; the cereal grains, buckwheat, peas, 
and the mill products belong to this class. Thus, fod- 
ders may be classified as hay, straws, green fodders, roots, 
and tubers ; and feeds as grains, mill-feeds, and refuse 
products. 

Hay. — Hay produced from the true grasses, as tim- 
othy, orchard grass, herd's-grass, and others, is bulky, and 
is characterized by a high content of carbohydrates, in- 
cluding crude fibre, and a low content of crude fat and 
crude protein ; that made from the clovers, — red, alsike, 
and crimson, — while also bulky, is much richer in protein 
than the others. Hay is variable in its composition ; its 
quality depending upon the kind or variety, the character 
of soil, the stage of growth at time of cutting, and the 
method of curing. The chief influence of the kind of soil 
is upon the content of crude protein ; the richer the soil, 
the richer the hay is likely to be in this substance. 

Early or Late Cut Hay. — Early cut hay is also richer 
in crude protein, and poorer in crude fibre, than late cut : 
for, although an increase in the weight of dry matter may 
occur, it is chiefly in the substance cellulose, or crude 
fibre ; besides, a material loss of the more nutritious com- 
pounds is likely to take place if it is allowed to ripen 
thoroughly. 

The Best Time for Cutting Hay. — The best time for 
cutting is when the plants are in blossom ; since little, if 
any, food is absorbed from the soil after that period. Hay 
that has been subjected to frequent rains, and consequent 
increased handling, suffers great loss, which falls almost 
entirely upon the most nutritious parts. This is particu- 



148 FIRST PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

larly true of clover hay ; the leaves, which are subject to 
loss in handling, contain the highest content of protein, 
while the stems consist largely of cellulose or fibre. The 
loss by repeated wetting, which may reach as high as 
forty per cent of the dry matter, consists almost entirely 
of the class carbohydrates. Crude fibre suffers but little 
loss. 

Corn grown for fodder, from which such ears as are 
formed are not removed, corresponds more nearly with 
hay in composition than with straw and stalks, though 
containing much less crude fibre. 

Straw and Stalks. — These possess, in a greater degree 
than hay, the characteristic bulk, since the nutritive mat- 
ter that first existed in the straw has passed into the seeds, 
which have been removed ; the straw is consequently 
poorer in protein and carbohydrates, and richer in fibre, 
than good hay, and shows a proportionately lower rate of 
digestibility. The food compounds in straw after diges- 
tion are, however, quite as valuable, and serve their 
purpose quite as well as those contained in hay. The 
variations in composition of straw are due to the same 
conditions as those which affect hay. 

Wheat and rye straw are poorer in protein and fat, and 
richer in the carbohydrates and fibre, and are coarser 
and harsher, than oat straw. Corn stalks or stover — the 
stalks from which the ears have been removed — are richer 
in protein and fat, and poorer in fibre and carbohydrates, 
than the straws ; they compare fairly well with hay in 
their composition. All of these products, however, if prop- 
erly cured, serve an excellent purpose in furnishing both 
bulk and nutritious compounds, and should be utilized. 



GROWTH OF ANIMALS ; ANIMAL FOOD. 149 

Green Fodders. — Green fodders are watery in char- 
acter, though they contain the same proportion of food 
compounds as the hay made from them, provided no loss 
occurs in making the hay. The disadvantage of handling 
the large amounts of water contained in green fodders is 
frequently balanced by a decreased loss in dry matter, due 
to handling in a green state, and by an increased palata- 
bility and succulence. 

Ensilage. — Ensilage is fodder corn, clover, rye, or other 
green food, preserved in such a manner — usually in air- 
tight buildings called silos — as to retain in large part 
all of the qualities of the original product. It is highly 
regarded, particularly on dairy farms, where succulence 
in a fodder is a matter of importance. The losses due 
to fermentation occurring in the silo or pit are con- 
siderable, and fall chiefly upon the class carbohydrates ; 
though, according to experiments already conducted, the 
total loss is less by this method than by curing in the field. 

Tubers and Roots. — These all contain large amounts 
of water, ranging from seventy-five per cent in potatoes 
to over ninety per cent in turnips. Their value as food 
depends, perhaps, quite as much upon their succulence, 
palatability, high rate of digestibility, and good effect upon 
the animal system, as upon the food constituents, which 
consist almost entirely of carbohydrates. 

Cereal Grains. — The grains or seeds of the cereals are 
the most important of the feeds. They are especially 
suited for all kinds of farm animals, and for the various 
purposes of feeding. They are rich in the three groups 
of food compounds described, are reasonably constant 
in composition, and possess a high rate of digestibility. 



150 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

Corn and oats are the cereal grains most largely used for 
animal food. Of these corn is richer in carbohydrates, 
and is used to the greatest extent for fattening, and oats 
almost exclusively as a food for horses, for which it is 
peculiarly adapted, both in bulk and in proportion of 
food constituents. 

Mill-Feeds and Refuse Products. — These consist 
of the ground grains of corn, oats, and rye, either singly 
or mixed, and the residues of grains or seeds after their 
use for other purposes has been accomplished. The latter 
differ from the whole-grain feeds in showing a higher 
content of nitrogenous matter. 

Bran and Middlings. — Bran and middlings derived in 
the manufacture of flour consist of the outer coverings 
of the grains used, mixed with more or less of the germ, 
and are richer in fat, protein, and ash than the original 
grain, the flour containing a much larger proportion of 
the carbohydrates. They are very useful when fed in 
connection with the fodders, since they supply in a con- 
centrated form the nutrients usually deficient in these 
products. The middlings are, on the whole, better than 
bran, since they contain less crude fibre and more carbo- 
hydrates. Both bran and middlings vary somewhat in 
composition, due to differences in methods of manufac- 
ture, and also to variations in the composition of the 
original product ; these variations are, however, less 
marked than those which occur in the various fodders. 

Brewers* Grains. — Brewers' grains, which represent 
the bran of barley, and malt sprouts, which are the dried 
germs of the same grain, are derived in the manufacture 
of beer from barley. The grains when they have served 



ANIMAL FOOD. 151 

the purpose of the brewer are very wet, containing, on the 
average, seventy-five per cent of water ; in this condition 
they are somewhat richer in the food compounds than 
green fodders, and are an excellent feed. They are, how- 
ever, liable to ferment rapidly, especially in warm weather, 
which causes serious loss, besides making them unfit for 
food. The grains, when dried before fermentation sets 
in, make a wholesome and highly concentrated food, 
richer in both fat and protein than bran or middlings, 
and because of their high food value and bulk are an 
excellent substitute for oats. Malt sprouts are also rich 
in protein, though poorer in fat than the dried grains. 

Gluten Feeds. — Gluten feeds occur as residues in 
the manufacture of either starch or glucose (grape sugar) 
from maize or Indian corn, and consist of a series of 
products, which, when dried, are classed as gluten feed, 
gluten meal, germ meal, and corn bran. Gluten feed 
consists of the entire residue ; it is quite bulky, and 
much richer in fat and protein than the original corn. 
In gluten meal the hull or germ of the corn has been 
removed, thus largely increasing the content of both fat 
and protein. It is one of the most concentrated of the 
nitrogenous feeds, and should be used with great care. 
The germ meal contains a large proportion of the germ 
of the corn. It contains more fat and less carbohydrates 
than corn, and about the same amount of protein. Corn 
bran usually consists of a mixture of the germ and hulls 
of the corn. It contains about the same amount of fat 
and protein as corn, with less carbohydrates and more 
fibre. It is more bulky than the others. Germ meal 
and corn bran serve as excellent substitutes for corn 



152 FIRST PBINCIPLES OF AGBICULTURE. 

meal. Brewers' grains and all of the gluten products 
contain much less ash than the original barley or corn, 
the soluble salts being extracted in the process of manu- 
facture. 

Horainy Meal. — Hominy meal, a residue in the manu- 
facture of hominy, consists chiefly of the germ and hull 
of the corn, and corresponds in composition with the 
germ meal, though much richer in ash. 

Cottonseed Meal. — Cottonseed meal is derived in 
the manufacture of cottonseed oil from the cottonseed. 
This feed is of two kinds : one in which the hulls of the 
seed have been removed, in which case it is called " de- 
corticated ; " the other called ^' undecorticated," in which 
the hulls have not been removed. Both are rich in pro- 
tein and fat ; though the former is far superior as a food, 
both because of its higher content of nutrients, and its 
greater palatability and digestibility. The concentration 
and nitrogenous character of these feeds make them 
very valuable, particularly when fed in connection with 
coarse products, though because of their concentration 
they should be used with great care. 

Linseed Meal. — This product, sometimes called oil 
meal, is a residue from the manufacture of oil from flax- 
seed, and is of two kinds, called <' old process " and '^ new 
process ; " the former derived when the fat is extracted 
by pressure, the other when solvents are used. There 
is but little difference in their feeding value, the larger 
amount of fat in the "old process" being balanced by 
an increased amount of protein in the "new process." 
Both are rich in protein, and show a high rate of di- 
gestibility. 



GROWTH OF ANIMALS; ANIMAL FOOD. 153 

Rice Bran, Peanut Meal. — These are also excellent 
feeds, though not so generally distributed. It should be 
remembered, however, that all these mentioned, and a 
number of minor importance, are valuable for their con- 
tent of fat, protein, and carbohydrates; that many of 
them represent the more valuable parts of grains ; that 
they are quite as much feeds as if existing in their 
original natural condition, and should find a place on all 
well-managed farms. 



154 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 



CHAPTEE XIII. 

The Digestibility of Fodders and Feeds ; Feeding Standards ; 
Nutritive Ratio ; The Exchange of Farm Products for Con- 
centrated Feeds. 

The nourishment that may be derived from any food 
depends not only upon its composition in reference to 
the specific food substances that it contains, but also 
upon the amount of these that may be digested by the 
animal. 

Digestibility of Fodders and Feeds. — Pure nu- 
trients, as albumen, starch, or fat, are regarded as 
entirely digestible. These nutrients, however, do not 
exist in the various feeding materials in a pure state. 
They are associated with substances that are indigesti- 
ble, or that hinder their digestibility ; hence the entire 
digestibility of a food is governed both by the purity 
of the nutrients which it contains, and by the ab- 
sence of those compounds which prevent the complete 
action of the digestive fluids. 

Seeds of plants, as a rule, contain matter of a readily 
digestible character ; that is, the nutrients contained in 
them are relatively pure : but they are, in many cases, 
enclosed in a hard shell, and, particularly if swallowed 
whole, resist the action of the digestive processes, thus 
preventing the digestion of the entire seed. In the 



FODBEES AND FEEDS. 155 

same manner the nutrients in such products as hay and 
straw frequently pass through the animal undigested, 
because they are surrounded by the woody and almost 
impervious fibre of the cell wall, which prevents the 
attack of the digestive fluids. 

Fodders, therefore, on account of the great proportion 
of fibre they contain, are less digestible than the finely 
ground concentrated feeds. The cutting and crushing 
of the coarse fodders, and the fine grinding of the vari- 
ous grains and seeds, favorably influence the rate of 
digestibility. The digestibility of a fodder or a feed 
is also influenced by other conditions, such as the pro- 
portion of the three classes of food constituents con- 
tained in it ; the period of growth at time of harvesting 
the forage ; methods of curing and storage ; the kind 
or breed of animal to which it is fed ; the age of the 
animal, its individual peculiarities ; and many other in- 
fluences of a minor character, all of which should be 
regarded in the preparation of rations. 

The Digestion Co-efl&cients ; Their Derivation and 
Use. — The relative digestibility of the different prod- 
ucts for various purposes under ordinary conditions of 
feeding, have been determined by actual feeding experi- 
ments. Such experiments have been conducted both 
here and in Europe, and the data derived from a large 
number are of great service in determining the com- 
parative value of the different feeds. In these experi- 
ments, the food and manure are weighed, and the 
analyses made ; and the difference between the total 
amount of the constituents in the food and in the 
dung shows how much of each has been digested ; 



156 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

the amount or the per cent digested is called " the di- 
gestion co-efficient." 

For example, it is found by experiments that clover 
hay of average quality shows digestible : — 

Fat 43 per cent. 

Fibre 48 " ■ 

Protein 49 " 

Nitrogen-free extract 58 " 

These figures represent the proportion or pounds per 
hundred of the various constituents digested, and are used 
in calculating the digestibility of other samples of the 
same kind of product of average quality. They are the 
digestion co-efficients. 

The average composition of clover hay is : — 

Water 15.3 per cent. 

Crude Fat 3.3 

Crude Fibre 24.8 

Crude Protein 12.3 

Crude Ash 6.2 

Nitrogen-free extract 38.1 

The calculation of the digestibility of clover hay is, 
therefore, as follows : — 

Digestible Fat 3.3x0.43= 1.42 per cent. 

Digestible Fibre 24.8x0.48 = 11.90 *' 

Digestible Protein 12.3x0.49= 6.03 " 

Nitrogen-free extract .... 38.1x0.58 = 22.10 " 

The digestible fibre has been found to consist of cel- 
lulose ; hence, in stating the digestibility of a food, the 
per cent of crude fibre digested is added to the nitrogen- 
free extract, and the result stated as follows : — 

Fat 1.42 per cent. 

Protein 6.03 " 

Carbohydrates 34.00 " 



FODDERS AND FEEDS. 157 

The Objects of Feeding. — The objects for which 
we feed are : 1. Simply to maintain life ; that is, to 
replace by food the natural wastes of the body conse- 
quent upon the simple exercise of the vital functions, 
as described in the previous chapter; and 2. To main- 
tain life, and at the same time to increase animal prod- 
uct or work. It is in carrying out the second object 
that skill and knowledge are required, in order that 
the use of the food may result in the greatest and most 
economical production. 

Animal Products Differ in Their Character and 
Composition. — The different results accomplished by 
feeding, as maintenance of life, the production of milk, 
flesh, fat, wool, etc., are not only different in their char- 
acter, but in order to secure them at the least outlay of 
actual nutrients, different proportions of the digestible 
compounds contained in feeds must be provided. 

In the simple maintenance of life, where there is no 
gain in flesh, the chief nutrients required are those 
which best supply the heat and energy necessary to 
maintain the vital processes ; viz., non-nitrogenous sub- 
stances : hence it is that hay, straw, and stalks, which 
possess the requisite bulk, and are rich in this class of 
substances, serve an excellent purpose in the prepara- 
tion of maintenance rations for cattle and horses. 

To secure a product rich in protein, as milk or flesh, 
the feeds must contain a greater proportion of protein 
than is necessary when the object of feeding is fat, 
since the digestible protein of the food is the sole source 
of the 2^^otein in the body ; while all the nutrients may 
contribute to the formation of the fat. In a young ani- 



158 FIRST PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTUBF. 

mal, too, a large portion of the nutriment is used in 
making muscle, tissue, and bone; while in a mature ani- 
mal the amount of the food constituents that go to form 
new products is comparatively small, the larger portion 
being used in maintaining animal heat. 

The proportion of the three general classes of ^ood 
compounds should therefore be different for the various 
purposes of feeding. 

The Proportion of the Pood Constituents Re- 
quired for the Different Purposes of Feeding. — 
Experiments in feeding animals have been conducted 
in which all variable conditions have as far as possible 
been controlled, in order to secure exact data as to the 
proper proportions in a ration, as well as the amounts of 
the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous substances required 
for the various purposes of feeding. The results of these 
experiments have led to the fixing of what are termed 
" feeding standards ; " that is, statements of the amounts 
of digestible protein, or albuminoids, fat and carbohy- 
drates, which appear to be, and are perhaps under aver- 
age conditions, best adapted to the various conditions of 
the animal and the numerous purposes of feeding. 

Feeding Standards. — The " feeding standards " in 
most common use are those of the German experimenter 
Wolff, which are given in the Appendix. For example, 
his standard ration per day for a milch cow of one thou- 
sand pounds live weight, in full flow, requires twenty-five 
pounds of organic substance, which shall contain 0.40 
(i.e., four-tenths) pounds of digestible fat, 2.50 pounds of 
digestible protein, and 12.50 pounds of digestible car- 
bohydrates. A ration for dairy cows showing these 



FODDERS AND FEED. 159 

amounts and proportions, or, in fact, any ration conform- 
ing to the required " standard," is also called a " balanced 
ration/' and one showing other proportions is called ^^ un- 
balanced." These expressions are used to indicate that 
the proportions in the '^ balanced ration " are such as to 
insure the best use by the animal of all the food constit- 
uents contained in it ; while in the '^ unbalanced ration " 
the proportions are such as to indicate a waste of one or 
the other classes of food compounds, because contained 
in quantities exceeding the needs of the animal. For 
instance, if a milch cow is fed a ration higher in car- 
bohydrates, and lower in protein, than is indicated by 
the standard, she will, of necessity, in order to secure 
the requisite protein, consume more carbohydrates than the 
system requires, thus entailing a waste of this sub- 
stance. 

The Usefulness of Feeding Standards. — It is evi- 
dent that the amounts and proportions of digestible food 
compounds given by the standard are not the best for 
every cow under all conditions of full milk flow ; for dif- 
ferent cows differ not only in their capacity to utilize 
food, but also in the amount of milk produced when in 
full flow. The same holds true of standards for other 
animals ; that which is the best for one may not be the 
best for another. 

Feeding standards are, therefore, mainly useful as 
guides in the selection of food products for the prepara- 
tion of rations ; and, though they should not be regarded 
as positive rules, the experiments conducted in connec- 
tion with the experience of practical feeders indicate 
that the amount and proportion of the digestible food 



160 FIBST PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

compounds given by the standard can be followed with 
great advantage. In many cases, too, while the propor- 
tions given by the standards would furnish the greatest 
return for the amount fed, other proportions, because 
of the prices of feed, may give the largest money re- 
turns to the feeder. The use of feeding standards must 
be accompanied with judgment on the part of the feeder 
regarding the individuality of the animal, and the char- 
acter of feeds and their cost, as well as the object of 
feeding. That is, animals must be fed as individuals, 
with peculiarities of appetite, digestion, and assimila- 
tion, not as fixed machines. 

Nutritive Ratio. — In a ration for simple mainte- 
nance, the proportion of the fats and carbohydrates to- 
gether may be greatly in excess of the digestible 
protein ; while for the production of milk, or of flesh 
products which are rich in albumen and casein, the 
direct and only source of these compounds, viz., digest- 
ible protein, should be proportionately increased. The 
proportion of the one class of substances to the other 
is called '^nutritive ratio," and is obtained as fol- 
lows : — 

The sum of the digestible carbohydrates and two and 

one-fourth times the digestible fat is divided by the 

digestible protein in the ration ; the quotient gives the 

nutritive ratio. The calculation of the nutritive ratio 

of clover hay, from the analysis and digestibility given 

on page 156, will serve as an example of the method : — 

Digestible Fat, X 2^ = 3.19 

Digestible Carbohydrates = 34.00 

37.19 
Digestible Protein 6.03 



FOBDEIiS AND FEEDS. 161 

The nutritive ratio is 6.03 to 37.19, or 1 to 6.2 ; that 
is, one part of digestible nitrogenous substances, some- 
times called ^' flesh formers," to 6.2 parts of digestible 
non-nitrogenous matter, or " fat formers." 

"Wide vs. Narrow Rations. — If the quantities of 
digestible fat and carbohydrates are large relatively to 
the protein, this number will be large, and the ration is 
called a " wide ration." If the quantities of digestible 
fat and carbohydrates are relatively small, the quotient 
is a small number, and the ration is a " narrow " one. 
A ration where the nutritive ratio is much more than 
1 to 6 may be called a " wide ration," if much less it may 
be called a " narrow ration." 

Very few natural feeds conform closely to the stan- 
dards given for the various purposes of feeding. Coarse 
farm products show a very wide nutritive ratio, and 
are only well adapted for maintenance ; while many of 
the concentrated feeds show a much narrower nutritive 
ratio than is called for by the standards, even for the 
production of milk or flesh. This makes it necessary, in 
order to economically use food products, to combine those 
rich in carbohydrates, or possessing a wide nutritive 
ratio, with those rich in protein, and possessing a nar- 
row ratio. 

The Preparation of Rations. — The preparation of 
rations requires, however, more than a simple combina- 
tion of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous foods in such a 
manner as to secure the proper nutritive ratio. The 
bulk of the ration, as well as the palatability and digest- 
ibility must be regarded ; there must be sufficient bulk 
to properly distend the stomach; food too concentrated 



162 FIB ST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

in character, though supplying the requisite nutrients, 
causes an uneasy and unsatisfied feeling, and it is evi- 
dent that bulk should be different for the cow than for 
the horse or pig. For milch cows it may consist, in 
large measure, of straw, which is partially digestible, 
and usually palatable ; while for the horse or pig an 
abundance of straw would serve a less useful purpose, 
because of the smaller size and different formation of 
the stomach, and because in the latter the food is not 
re-masticated, as is the case with the cow. 

Palatability is also an important feature, since the 
amount of animal product secured is largely dependent 
upon the amount of food the animal can be made to 
consume over an^^ above that necessary to maintain life. 
Too much indigestible matter must also be avoided ; since 
it is liable to disarrange the system, because of the 
extra work required to properly dispose of it. 

To insure the minimum waste of nutritious matter, 
such coarse products as corn-stalks and straw, which in 
their original state are not readily and completely eaten 
by animals, must be cut, the coarser and finer portions 
intimately mixed, and feeds of known relish added. 

The following examples show how various fodders and 
feeds may be combined in order to secure such propor- 
tions of the digestible food compounds as experiments 
and experience have taught us are well adapted to the 
purposes indicated, while at the same time possessing 
the features discussed in reference to bulk and palata- 
bility. The tables in the Appendix furnish the data 
necessary for the calculation of digestibility and nutri- 
tive ratio : — 





1. 


10 pounds 
8 " 

5 " 

6 " 
3 " 


i Timothy Hay. 
Oat Straw. 
Corn Meal. 
Wheat Bran. 
Cottonseed Meal, 



FODDERS AND FEEDS. 163 

Daily Rations Based Upon 1,000 lbs. Live Weight. 

For Growing Cattle, 
6-12 months' old. 
1. 2. 

15 pounds Corn Stalks. 20 pounds Clover Hay. 

10 " Wheat Bran. 6 " Corn Meal. 

3 " Linseed Meal. 2 " Linseed Meal. 

For Fattening Stock. 

2. 

10 pounds Corn Stalks. 
6 " Wheat Straw. 
6 " Wheat Middlings. 
3 " Linseed Meal. 
5 " Corn Meal. 

For Milch Cows. 
1. 2. 

5 pounds Timothy Hay. 10 pounds Mixed Hay. 

5 " Shredded Corn Stalks. 

6 " Corn and Oat Meal. 
6 " Wheat Bran. 
2 " Cottonseed Meal. 
8 '• Roots. 

Horses for Farm Work. 

12 pounds Timothy Hay. 
6 " Corn. 

4 " Oats. 
1 " Linseed Meal. 

These rations, however, are intended to show chiefly 
good proportions of the various materials; the amounts 
should be adjusted by the feeder to best meet the require- 
ments of the individual animal. Care in respect to feed- 
ing is quite as important as the selection of the various 
products. The amount and kind of concentrated feed 
are also matters of importance. The highly nitrogenous 
cottonseed, linseed, and gluten meals must be fed in 
small amounts, ranging from two to four pounds per day 



4 " 

4 " 
3 " 

2 *' 
1 " 


Corn Meal. 
Malt Sprouts. 
Wheat Bran. 
Linseed Meal. 
Cottonseed Meal. 


Horses 


FOR Road Work. 


10 pounds Timothy Hay. 
10 " Oats. 

6 " Wheat Bran. 

2 " Linseed Meal. 



164 FIRST PBmCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

for milch cows ; while bran, dried brewers' grains, and 
corn mealj can be safely fed in larger quantities. It is 
desirable, when possible, to make the ration consist of 
a small quantity each of a number of feeds, rather than a 
larger quantity of one or two ; since it usually adds to the 
palatability, lessens the danger of overfeeding, and per- 
mits a frequent change of diet. 

Practical Methods of Using Balanced Rations. — 
Where the appliances for making weights at each feed 
are not at hand, and it is preferable to measure, the dif- 
ferent materials should be weighed at least once, and 
the relation between a certain weight and a certain bulk 
ascertained. The weight or measure of feed for a day's 
ration for a herd may be mixed together in the propor- 
tions given, and in feeding they should be distributed 
in such a way as to give animals of different weights 
and capacities for using food that amount best adapted 
for them. In feeding dairy animals, where there are a 
number of dry cows, the mixtures for each lot would 
better be made separately. For horses, the grain or feed 
rations for work and maintenance may each be mixed in 
considerable quantities, and placed in separate bins. 

Exchange of Farm Products For Concentrated 
Feeds. — A comparison of the nutritive ratio of the 
various natural farm products, — hay, grain, straw, and 
corn stalks or fodder — and of the various feeding stand- 
ards, as already indicated, shows that, with few excep- 
tions aside from the maintenance ration, these contain 
a decided excess of carbohydrates, or, in other words, 
the nutritive ratio of the various farm products is too 
wide when the purpose of feeding is increase in animal 



FODDERS AND FEEDS. 1G5 

product. This is even more striking if only the coarse 
products — hay, straw, stalks, and corn — are retained by 
the farmer for his purpose-s ; hence, in the purchase of 
feeds that shall balance rations made from home-grown 
produce, those should be selected which show a narrow 
nutritive ration or an excess of protein. 

Actual Practice is Often Wasteful. — In too many 
cases in actual practice, in order to enrich the ration 
fed, constituents are added that are already in excess ; 
and hence, while an increase in result may be obtained, 
there is also an increased waste of valuable constituents. 
To add corn meal, an excellent food product, to corn 
fodder or corn stalks, — that is, carbohydrates to carbo- 
hydrates, — in the preparation of rations for dairy cows, 
may increase the product of the dairy, but it is by 
virtue of an increased total consumption of food, because 
of the more concentrated character of the ration, rather 
than by an economical use of the constituents. A waste 
of food is only warranted when it is cheaper to waste 
than to utilize. 

Economy in Selling Grain and Buying Feed. — In 
many cases, too, the cost of the nutrients in the com- 
mercial concentrated feeds is much less than is secured 
by the farmer for the same nutrients in whole grains ; 
under such circumstances, to sell the larger part of his 
grain and hay crops, and to purchase in return those 
feeds which w411 enable him to utilize his coarse prod- 
ucts, like straw and corn stalks, to the best advantage, 
is a desirable practice. It must be remembered that the 
waste or refuse feed products usually consist of parts 
of grain, and hence, so far as nutrients go, are quite 
as serviceable as the original products. 



166 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGIUCULTUBE. 

Fertility in Feeds. — A fodder or feed has a fertiliz- 
ing value by virtue of the manurial constituents — nitro- 
gen, phosphoric acid, and potash — contained in it. Corn, 
oats, hay, wheat, or other crops, when sold from the 
farm, carry with them a certain portion of these con- 
stituents ; and the sale of these products continued for a 
long time must result in the exhaustion of the soil. If 
they are returned to the land in whole or in part, they 
will aid in the growth of other plants, and the time of 
exhaustion is postponed. 

The Relative Fertility of Fodders and Feeds 

Fodders are much less valuable as direct manures than 
the feeds, — first, because they contain less of the essential 
constituents ; and second, because, from their woody char- 
acter, their decay is less rapid, though both are valuable 
as indirect manures, because of their high content of or- 
ganic vegetable matter. The direct fertilizing value of a 
feed is largely measured by its content of nitrogen ; though 
the ash constituents, phosphoric acid and potash, are also 
of considerable importance. 

Mill-Feeds vs. Commercial Fertilizers Fine- 
ground mill-feeds, though less concentrated, are quite 
as good sources of available organic nitrogen as the best 
commercial forms furnishing that element ; the phosphoric 
acid is less valuable than when contained in forms com- 
pletely soluble in water, because decay must take place 
before it becomes available to the plant ; while the potash, 
which is largely soluble in water, is regarded as equiva- 
lent in value to that contained in forms free from muri- 
ates. Of all the feeds we have, cottonseed meal is the 
richest in fertilizing constituents. In the Southern States 



FODDERS AND FEEDS. 167 

it is used directly as a manure, and even in the Northern 
States it is one of the cheapest sources of organic nitro- 
gen. Linseed meal, malt sprouts, dried brewers' grains, 
and a number of others, are much richer in nitrogen than 
the average commercial fertilizer, though their higher rela- 
tive cost forbids their direct use as nitrogenous manures. 

Refuse Feeds are Rich in Fertility. — Feeds, there- 
fore, in addition to their food value, possess an actual and 
sometimes a considerable value as a fertilizer. This point 
should be carefully regarded in their purchase, and espe- 
cially as bearing upon the point already emphasized : viz., 
the exchange of home-grown produce for them ; for it is 
an important fact that the crops grown which contain the 
highest amount of carbohydrates, and thus in many cases 
the most desirable to dispose of from the standpoint of 
economical feeding, are those which contain the smallest 
amounts of the fertilizing constituents ; while those com- 
mercial feeds containing protein in large amounts — the 
substance usually deficient in home-grown produce — are 
rich in nitrogen, and often richer also in ash constituents. 
Hence it is that on farms where stock is kept, a judicious 
exchange of farm products for concentrated feeds may 
result in soil improvement, rather than soil exhaustion, 
even with the continuous sale of crops. It is a fact, too 
that the prices of feeds, as well as the crops sold, are 
governed entirely by market conditions ; that is, no ac- 
count is made of the fertility value, hence the fertilizer 
constituents gained by this exchange are a clear gain to 
the farmer. 

A good example of the advantages of a careful obser- 
vation of these points is shown by a comparison of corn 



168 FIB ST PRINCIPLES OF AGEICULTUliE. 

meal and wheat middlings, valuable food products, wliicli 

contain practically equivalent amounts of total digestible 

food, and wliicli usually cost about the same price per 

ton : — 

Pounds of 
Nitrogen. Phosphoric Acid. Potash. 
One ton of Corn Meal contains ... 33 14 8 

One ton of Wheat Middlings contains . 50 28 M 

Excess in Middlings 17 14 6 

That is, by the exchange of one ton of corn meal for one 
ton of wheat middlings, there is not only no loss of fertil- 
ity, but a gain in mineral constituents nearly equivalent 
to that contained in one ton of the corn meal. The use of 
tables in the Appendix will enable the student to make 
correct comparisons of the fertility values of the chief 
farm crops and purchased feeds. 

Manurial Value. — The direct fertilizing value of a 
ton of feed is, however, greater than the manurial value of 
the same; since, in feeding, a portion of the fertilizing 
constituents is retained in the animal itself or obtained 
in animal product, the amount depending upon the kind 
of animal, and the object of feeding. 

The quantity of nitrogen and ash constituents voided in 
the manure of a grown animal, neither gaining nor losing 
in weight, will be nearly the same as that contained in 
the food consumed. In case animals are increasing in size, 
producing young, or furnishing milk or avooI, the nitrogen 
and ash constituents in the manure will be less than in the 
food, in direct proportion to the quantity of these sub- 
stances which have been converted into animal products. 

The data secured in experiments by Lawes & Gilbert, 
at E-othamsted, England, contained in the following table, 



FODDERS AND FEEDS. 



169 



are perhaps fairly representative of the amounts of fer- 
tilizer constituents retained from the feeds in the various 
animal products : — 













Percentage 




Percentage of Nitrogen. 


OF Ash 












Constituents. 


'3 . 


s 


;d 




«^d 


£a 




<t 


L 


c^^ 


X 


&'^ 


22 




■H 


OB <» 


^§ 


W 


?gs 


HO^ 




-aS 


ceg 


^S 


^ 


"^"S 


^o.- 




fl^ 


-dS 


^2 




CD .a 


-=!§ 






<o o 


ap « 


o a 




aj C-- 




"3 '5 


T} s 


"d X 


H a- 


'^'^ 


-S *-S 




ss 


oW 


•SC^ 


«2 


%^ 


oS2 




o 


> 


> 


O 


> 


Horse at Rest 


None 


43.0 


57.0 


100.0 


None 


100.0 


Horse at Work .... 


None 


29.4 


70.6 


100.0 


None 


100.0 


Fattening Oxen .... 


3.9 


22.6 


73.5 


96.1 


2.3 


97.7 


Fattening Sheep .... 


4.3 


16.7 


79.0 


95.7 


3.8 


96.2 


Fattening Pigs 


14.7 


22.0 


63.3 


85.2 


4.0 


96.0 


Milking Cows 


24.5 


18.1 


57.4 


75.5 


10.3 


89.7 



Manurial Constituents should be saved. — The 
amount of fertilizer constituents voided in the manure 
may, however, be greater than the amount actually pres- 
ent when the manure is used, because of the losses that 
may occur between the time it is produced and the time 
it is applied to the land ; hence the precautions given 
in a previous chapter concerning the care and manage- 
ment of manures should be carefully followed. 



170 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
Principles of Breeding ; The Pure Breeds of Farm Stock. 

The various breeds of horses, cattle, sheep, and swine, 
are the result in large measure of attempts to secure the 
best. A single breed of cattle, for instance, could not meet 
in the best manner all the requirements that the numerous 
conditions now demand. We must have animals adapted 
for a definite specific production, rather than for general 
purposes ; viz., work, speed, endurance, butter, milk, meat, 
wool, and fat. A distinct breed is one which possesses 
distinct characteristics of color, form, and habit, which 
are transmitted without material change to the offspring. 
The best breed is that which best meets the demands 
in any specific case. 

Principles of Breeding Breeding is an art rather 

than an exact science, though it is scientific in that it 
is based upon scientific principles or natural laws. These 
must be observed in order both to attain and to retain 
the specific characteristics desired. 

Heredity, or the law that "like begets like," is the 
most important. It is regarded as the corner-stone of the 
art. This law applies not only to outward form, but also 
to the entire characteristics; animals inherit the quali- 
ties, habits, and tendencies of their parents, both good and 
bad. The results of this law of descent are observable 



PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 171 

on all sides, both in the lower animals and in man. Cer- 
tain families have certain peculiarities or habits, good or 
bad, that are directly traceable to their ancestors ; that 
is, animals bred true to a given idea or type for a long 
time acquire fixed characters or peculiarities, which they 
are capable of transmitting unimpaired to their offspring. 

The law of heredity is, however, only true in a general 
sense. It is not absolute ; if it were, the improvement of 
live stock would be impossible. Certain other natural 
tendencies are constantly active to modify the law of 
heredity. 

Atavism, or Reversion, is the name given to qual- 
ities or habits in the offspring which were not possessed 
by the immediate parents, but which were possessed by 
some remote ancestor. This law of atavism, or tendency 
to go back to an original type, is familiar to all breeders, 
and frequently causes annoyance, particularly where fine 
points in breeding are regarded as important. Many in- 
stances are recorded in the various herd-books of the ap- 
pearance of calves with a color totally different from that 
of their immediate parents, and the appearance of an ani- 
mal with horns is a quite common occurrence among the 
recognized hornless breeds of cattle. 

Variation is a tendency in the offspring to be un- 
like their parents. It is by virtue of this law of variation, 
which is readily influenced by artificial conditions, that 
rapid changes in types may be effected and new breeds 
formed. 

The great gain in maturity and meat-producing qual- 
ities of certain breeds of cattle is due in a great measure 
to better methods of feeding, in connection with greater 



172 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

care in breeding. This influence has been so marked as 
to give rise to the common expression that "feed makes 
breed/' Habit also exercises a marked influence in the 
development of valuable characteristics, a striking example 
of which is observed in the breeds of milch cows. The 
habit of giving milk, which has been encouraged for a 
long time, has caused a change in the structure and func- 
tion of the animal. In the early breeds the tendency to 
secrete milk was not a prominent characteristic ; it was 
only sufficiently developed to satisfy the demands of the 
young. 

Prepotency, or the superior influence of one parent over 
the other in determining the character of the offspring, 
is also a principle which exerts a decided influence in the 
development and improvement of distinct breeds. Certain 
breeds, as well as certain animals, possess this characteristic 
in a marked degree ; that is, the offspring closely resemble 
this particular breed or animal, whatever may have been 
the character of the other parent. Among American trot- 
ting-horses, Kysdyk's Hambletonian showed this power of 
individual prepotency in a remarkable degree ; his get, as 
a rule, not only resembling him in color, form, gait, temper, 
vigor, and endurance, but in nearly every conceivable 
quality that he possessed. 

Lineage. — Various terms are used to express the birth 
and descent of animals. " Pure-bred," " thorough-bred,'^ and 
sometimes " full-blood," are terms used to indicate animals 
of a distinct and well-defined breed. " Pure-bred " is the 
only strictly correct term ; " thorough-bred " is the name of 
a distinct breed of English race-horses, while " full-blood " 
hardly expresses the idea. 



PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 173 

Cross-Bred refers to animals produced by breeding 
together distinct breeds ; for example, the offspring from 
the breeding together of pure-bred Shorthorn and Jersey 
cattle, or of pure-bred Berkshire and Chester white swine, 
are cross-breeds. 

Grades are the product of a cross between a pure- 
bred and a native. The offspring of a pure-bred Jersey 
sire and a cow of no fixed type is a " grade " Jersey ; while 
a " high-grade " animal is one in which the blood of a pure 
breed is in excess. The offspring of a " pure-bred " Jersey 
and a " grade " Jersey is a " high-grade." 

In-and-in Breeding means mating animals that are 
closely related to one another. This method, as practised 
by various breeders, differs both in respect to the degree 
of relationship, and to the continuation of the practice. 
Authorities have defined the term as applying " only to 
animals of precisely the same blood, as own brother and 
sister," and also as " pairing of relations within the degree 
of second cousins twice or more in succession." 

In-and-in breeding, carefully followed, permits the rapid 
establishment of a uniform breed ; if carried too far it is 
likely to be accompanied by a loss in size and constitu- 
tional vigor, though the method is followed to a greater 
or less extent by all breeders. 

Pedigree is the record or statement of the ancestors 
of an animal, and is usually registered only in the case of 
pure breeds ; it is useful as a guide in tracing inherited 
qualities. It is the custom when a distinct breed has been 
established to issue a herd or flock book. The methods of 
recording, and the rules governing the registry of pedigrees, 
are adopted by the various Breeders' Associations ; and 



174 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

while they differ somewhat in regard to form, the object 
is the same : viz., to put in permanent form a true record 
of the lineage, character, and performance of the indi- 
vidual. 

Value of Pure Breeds. — Pure breeds, as already 
stated, are the result of attempts to secure the best animal 
for some sijecific purpose ; and they can be relied on not 
only to accomplish that purpose better than any other, but 
also to produce young that possess the same qualities. For 
example, a specific milk or beef breed of cattle, or wool or 
mutton breed of sheep, will produce either milk or beef, 
wool or mutton, better than milk and beef, and wool and 
mutton. Whereas, in the common or native stock — a 
mixture of many breeds — a uniformity in production can- 
not be depended upon, as the type and character are not 
fixed, though individuals may possess superior qualities. 

The pure breeds, too, because of their fixity of charac- 
ter and prepotent power, are extremely valuable in improv- 
ing native stock. The offspring of a pure-bred sire and 
a native dam will possess in greater degree the character 
of the pure-bred sire than that of the mixed-bred dam. 
A pure-bred sire is, in such cases, more than one-half of 
the herd or flock. 

Breeding as a Business. — To be a successful breeder 
of live stock requires large capital, broad knowledge and 
experience, great patience, and a close attention to the 
details of the work. As a rule, breeding is more success- 
ful when conducted as a distinct branch of farming than 
when added to the work of the general farmer. A 
farmer may, however, greatly improve his stock by care- 
ful attention to the principles which govern in breeding, 



PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 175 

and, so far as the products of his herds and flocks are 
concerned, get much better results than are possible from 
common stock. The best animals for general farmers, 
for instance, are without doubt ^^high grades," produced 
from crossing pure-bred sires with good common stock. 
For this work a knowledge of the conditions of the farm, 
coupled with the knowledge of the characteristics of the 
leading breeds, should serve as a guide for the selection 
of that breed which shall best fulfil the conditions. In 
this work it is quite as necessary to have a sire of a 
high degree of excellence as in herds of pure-breds; for 
the stronger the fixed qualities of the sire, the more 
likely is he to impress them upon his offspring, and to 
overcome the tendencies inherent in the common dam. 

Crass-Breeding. — The crossing of the pure breeds 
has not always proved successful, since the inherited 
tendencies are too strong to admit of an equal mingling 
of the characteristics of the parents ; however, many such 
crosses have proved satisfactory. In this work, breeds 
should be selected which possess certain qualities in 
common, rather than those possessing distinctly opposite 
characters; for instance, the breeding together of a very 
small and a very large animal is not so likely to result 
in offspring possessing the best characteristics of both, 
as if the parents were more nearly alike in this and other 
respects. 

Breeds of Horses. — The distinct breeds of horses 
are classified as draft breeds, heavy carriage breeds, 
thorough-breds, American saddle-horses, American trotting- 
horses, and pony breeds. 

Draft Breeds. — Draft breeds, or large, heavy horses, — 



176 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

of weight ranging from one thousand six hundred to two 
thousand pounds, and specially adapted for heavy team- 
ing, — include the Percheron, and French and Norman 
Draft, originating in France; the Clydesdale, native of 
Scotland; the English Shire and Suffolk Punch, of Eng- 
land; and the Belgian Draft, native of Belgium. Of 
these, the Clydesdale is perhaps more suitable than the 
others for heavy farm work. They are fast walkers, in- 
telligent, gentle, and easily broken. 

Heavy Carriage Breeds. — The Cleveland Bay, French 
and German Coach and Hackney, constitute this class. 
These breeds are large, active, and stylish, and, while 
bred for heavy coaching, are well adapted for road or 
farm work. The " grades " or " high grades " of the 
Hackney, particularly, are highly valued, both for the 
farm and for general driving. The use of sires of all 
these breeds has proved of great value in improving our 
common stock of horses. 

Thorough-Breds and Araerican Saddle-Horses. — 
^' Thorough-bred " applies only to the English running- 
horse — the American '' thorough-bred s " being either im- 
ported from England, or the descendants of horses so 
imported. This breed had its origin in the East, and 
is the improved breed of the Arab, Turk, or Barbarian. 
It is the oldest as well as the most noted of all breeds. 
The best qualities of many breeds are due to a greater 
or less admixture of thorough-bred blood. 

The American saddle-horse is a newly formed breed, 
which was originated by a judicious mingling of the 
blood of the thorough-bred with the pacer. 

The American Trotting-Horse. — This class, which 



PRINCIPLES OF B HEEDING. 177 

traces directly to the thorough-bred, is not yet recognized 
as a distinct breed, though it is better known here than 
are those of the pure breeds. 

Pony Breeds. — These consist of the Shetland, 
Welsh, Exmoor, Mexican, and Indian, each possessing 
special characters, form, and habits. 

Breeds of Cattle. — These are usually classified as 
dairy and beef breeds, though many are regarded as pos- 
sessing both dairy and beef qualities in a marked degree. 

Dairy Breeds. — These may be further classified as 
butter and milk breeds. Chief among the butter breeds 
are the Jersey and Guernsey, natives of the Channel 
Islands of the same name situated near the north-west 
coast of France. 

Jersey. — This breed is the most noted of all the dairy 
breeds, both for its general elegance of proportion and 
appearance and for its excellent qualities. For butter- 
making it is not excelled. It has been brought to its 
present perfection by very careful methods of breeding, 
in which one idea, viz., butter, is constantly followed. 
It is small, and possesses a rather delicate constitution, 
and is thus not adapted to rigorous conditions of climate 
and careless handling. 

Guernsey. — The Guernsey is not so general a favor- 
ite as the Jersey; it is larger and coarser, though the 
texture of its skin is extremely delicate. It is dis- 
tinctly a dairy breed, and is a much deeper milker than 
the Jersey; the butter product is also richer in color 
and of better texture. A crossing of the Jersey or 
Guernsey upon our common stock is extremely useful in 
improving their butter qualities. 



178 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

Milk Breeds. — The chief milk breeds are the Ayr- 
shire, Holstein-Friesian, and Shorthorn ; though the Dutch 
Belted, Brown Swiss, Devon, and a few others have at- 
tained considerable prominence in certain localities. 

Ayrshire. — This breed is traceable to the county of 
Ayr in Scotland. Their chief characteristic is their ex- 
cellent milk, good in quality and large in quantity. The 
prevailing color is brown and white ; it is extremely 
hardy, active, and well adapted for mountain districts. 

Holstein-Friesian. — The exact origin of this breed 
is not well established. It is only known that for an 
indefinite period, anterior to the records of history, there 
existed a superior breed of cattle in the Duchy of Hol- 
stein in North Holland and Friesland. They have been 
used by the English for two hundred years to improve 
their stock. In color they are almost universally black 
and white. Their strong points are large size, deep 
milkers, and hardy constitutions. 

Shorthorn. — The Shorthorn breed was once spoken 
of as the Tees water, or Durham. The date since which 
the breed has had a distinct existence has been dis- 
puted, though it was certainly known to have been es- 
tablished in the early years of the last century. The 
Shorthorns are strong, deep milkers, possess hardy and 
vigorous constitutions, and a great power of adaptation 
to changes of soil, of climate, and of pasturage. In 
many sections, and especially in America, its breeding 
has been conducted with the sole view of the production 
of beef ; it has also achieved wonderful results through 
crossing with other breeds. The ranch cattle of the 
prairies of the West and in Texas have been largely 



PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 179 

graded up with this breed. Their color ranges from the 
blood red to the pure white. Owing to their generally 
valuable characteristics, they more nearly approach the 
general purpose animal than any other breed, though 
the Ked Polled and Devon are also included in this 
classification. 

Beef Breeds. — The chief distinctive beef breeds are 
the Herefords, Galloways, and Aberdeen, or Polled Angus ; 
though, as already stated, certain families of the Short- 
horn are bred exclusively for beef. 

Hereford. — Hereford cattle originated in Hereford- 
shire and adjoining counties in England ; they are highly 
regarded there, and have also met with great favor in 
the United States. The usual color is a rich, light or 
dark red, with white face, throat, and chest. The use 
of the Hereford for crossing with other breeds is not 
usually attended with as good results as are secured 
from the use of the Shorthorn. 

Galloway. — The Galloway is a polled breed, and de- 
rived its name from the province of Galloway in Scot- 
land. The color is universally black, and the hair long 
and shaggy. This breed has proved extremely valuable 
for the Western ranges. The animals are easily accli- 
mated, active, and hardy. 

Aberdeen Angus. — These are also hornless, and re- 
semble the Galloway in color and form, though they are 
somewhat less hardy and mature earlier. 

Breeds of Sheep. — The Merino, Southdown, Shrop- 
shire, Hampshire, Oxfordshire, Cotswold, Leicester, Lin- 
coln, and Horned Dorset are the leading breeds. 

Merinos. — These now include many distinct strains. 



180 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

They are the most widely known of all the breeds of 
sheep in America; they are bred almost exclusively for 
their fine wool, for which purpose they are unexcelled 
by any other breed. Their mutton qualities, while much 
improved by careful breeding, are not of a superior 
character. They are hardy, well adapted to warm cli- 
mates, and the rams have been extensively used for 
breeding up the flocks in the South-western States. 

Southdown. — Next to the Merino, the Southdown is 
the most extensively distributed breed in the United 
States. In size they are above the medium, and for the 
production of mutton take first rank. The ewes are 
prolific, and the lambs are vigorous and hardy. 

The other " down " breeds, viz., Shropshire, Hampshire, 
and Oxfordshire, resemble somewhat the Southdown in 
mutton and wool producing qualities, though showing 
differences in size and in their ability to thrive under 
varying conditions. 

The Cotswold, Leicester, and Lincoln are bred 
chiefly for their long wool. They are larger, and, as a 
rule, less prolific than the various down breeds ; they are 
extensively used in crosses to improve size. 

Horned Dorset is an old and well-established breed 
in England, where it originated in the shire of Dorset. 
It is not largely distributed in America. In size these 
sheep are above the medium. For the production of 
early, fat lambs this breed has no superior. With proper 
management they may be made to breed at all times of 
the year, are very prolific, dropping a large portion of 
twins, and are good nurses. This breed should occupy 
an important place here in the production of early lambs. 



PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 181 

Breeds of Swine are usually divided into classes 
according to size. The large breeds, whicli are well dis- 
tributed in America, include the Berkshire, Poland-China, 
Duroc, or Jersey Red, and Chester White, and the medium 
and small breeds, the Improved Berkshire, Cheshire, Small 
Yorkshire, Essex, and Suffolk. 

The larger breeds are more generally distributed in the 
corn-growing States of the Central West, and are well 
adapted for supplying the large pork-packing houses 
located there ; while the smaller breeds are more gen- 
erally distributed in the more thickly populated districts, 
and, because of their early maturity, are better adapted 
to supplying the demands for light pork for immediate 
consumption. 

The Duroc, or Jersey Red, the Chester White, and the 
Poland-China are American breeds. The Berkshire, Chesh- 
ire, Yorkshire, Essex, and Suffolk are English breeds. 

The chief characteristics of a good hog are early 
maturity, quietness of disposition, and small percentage 
of loss in dressing. 



182 FIliST riilNCIPLES OF AGUIGULTURE. 



CHAPTER XV. 

The Products of the Dairy; Their Character and Composition; 
Dairy Management. 

The distinct products of the dairy are milk, cream, 
butter, and cheese; and the waste or by-products, skim- 
milk, buttermilk, and whey. 

The primary purpose of the milk of the cow is to feed 
and nourish her young. The secretion or formation of a 
larger quantity than is required for this purpose is, there- 
fore, an acquired character, and is the result, in large 
measure, of artificial conditions. 

Milk is a Food in the fullest sense. It not only con- 
tains the nutrients necessary to sustain life and to cause 
growth, viz., fats, albuminoids, carbohydrates, and min- 
eral salts, but these exist in such a form as to be readily 
digested. Milk also possesses physical properties which 
distinguish it from other products. It is a white fluid, 
throughout which the fat is distributed in the form of 
small globules. The fat is lighter than the remainder of 
the fluid, which contains the albuminoids, carbohydrates, 
and salts in solution ; hence, on standing, the fat globules 
rise to the surface. This property is taken advantage 
of in the preparation of the products, cream and butter. 

Fat of Milk, or Butter-Fat, consists of a number of 
distinct kinds of fat, the chief of which are palmatin, 



TUE PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 18C 

stearin, olein, and butyrin. These may be classified as 
fixed, that is, those which remain on heating, and as 
volatile, those which may be driven off by heat ; fixed 
fats are also of two kinds, solid and liquid. 

The volatile fats affect the flavor of dairy products 
more than the fixed, and it is the proportion of liquid 
fat (olein) which affects the solidity of butter. The 
liquid fats increase with succulent foods, and the solid 
with dry foods. 

Albumen and Casein. — These two substances con- 
stitute the chief albuminoids of milk; and while they 
resemble each other in composition, they possess different 
properties. The albumen, which is contained in small 
amounts not usually exceeding one-half per cent, is co- 
agulated by heat and not by acids, while casein is coagu- 
lated by acids and not by heat. This property of casein 
is very important in the manufacture of cheese. 

Milk Sugar, called by chemists ^Uactose," possesses 
practically the same food value as other sugars. It dif- 
fers from cane sugar in appearance and in its properties. 
When it is crystallized, it is very hard, and it does not 
possess as high a sweetening power. 

Ash, or Mineral Salts, consists of phosphates of lime, 
magnesia, and iron, and chlorides and sulphates of soda 
and potash. 

Average Composition of Milk. — Milk is not a pro- 
duct of fixed composition. Both the total amount and 
the proportion of the constituents are influenced by a 
variety of conditions, the chief of which are : breed of 
the animal ; her age, health, and individuality ; the method 
of feeding and kind of food ; period of lactation, and time 



184 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

and season of milking. Of the constituents, fat varies 
more than the others, though each may vary sufficiently 
to cause serious differences in the composition of the 
products made from milk. The accompanying analysis 
fairly represents the average amounts and proportions of 
the constituents in normal milk : — 

Water 87.50 per cent. 

Fat 3.50 

Casein and Albuminoids 3.75 " 

Milk Sugar 4.50 

Ash 0.75 " 

100.00 
This average composition of milk has served as the 
basis in many States for the enactment of laws to pre- 
vent watering and other forms of adulteration. It must 
be remembered, however, that normal or whole milk will 
show wide variations from this standard in both direc- 
tions ; that is, it may be very much richer or very much 
poorer. The solid matter in milk is called ^' Total Solids." 
The Influence of Breed. — It has already been stated 
that cattle are divided into two classes : on the one hand, 
those in which the tendency to secrete milk is largely 
developed 5 and on the other, those in which the tendency 
to form flesh and fat has been especially encouraged. 
The result of this careful selection is the formation of a 
distinct milk type, in which the width and depth of the 
hind j)art of the animal and the udder are especially 
prominent features. 

The dairy breeds are, however, further classified into 
milk and butter breeds ; that is, those which give a large 
quantity of average quality, and those which give a 
smaller quantity of a higher quality. The following 



THE PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 



185 



table of averages, the result of experiments conducted 
at the New Jersey Experiment Station, with representa- 
tives of the leading dairy breeds, shows their relative 
yields, and the composition of the milk : — 
Average Yield and Composition of Milk of Different Breeds. 



Herd. 


>< 


Perce^'tage of I 


c 


V 


"S 
^ 






< 


Ayrshire 

Holstein-Friesian . . . 
Shorthorn 


9.0 
11.0 
9.0 


87.30 

87.88 
87.55 


12.70 
12.12 
12.45 


3.G8 
3.51 
3.65 


3.48 
3.28 
3.27 


4.84 
4.69 
4.80 


0.69 
0.64 
0.73 


Average 


9.7 


87.58 


12.42 


3.61 


3.34 


4.78 


0.69 


Guernsey 

Jersey 


8.7 
8.4 


85.52 
85.G6 


14.48 
14.34 


5.02 
4.78 


3.92 
3.96 


4.80 
4.85 


0.75 
0.75 


Average 


8.6 


85.59 


14.41 


4.90 


3.94 


4.83 


0.75 



While these results are not absolute, it is evident that 
there is a distinct classification of breeds based upon the 
relative yield and quality of milk. The milk from animals 
which naturally produce large quantities shows average 
quality, and that from animals which produce a smaller 
quantity shows a quality considerably above the average. 
That the content of fat in milk varies more than the 
other constituents is also distinctly shown in this work. 
The variations in the composition of milk, due to breed, 
is, therefore, important in indicating the animals best 
adapted for the production of a specific dairy product. 

The Age and Health of the Animal also affect 
the composition of milk. As a general rule, the milk of 
young animals is richer than that of old; this is not 
positive, however, since much depends upon the vitality, 
vigor, health, and management of the animals. 



186 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

The Period of Lactation is the time which elapses 
between the birth of the calf and dryness, and varies 
with different animals even of the same breed. During 
this period the yield and composition of the milk vary. 
The milk flow is greatest and the quality poorest in the 
beginning ; as the period increases the flow gradually falls 
off, and, as a rule, the quality improves, though the rate 
of improvement is dependent somewhat upon food and 
management. The fat globules are larger at the begin- 
ning and smaller at the end of the period. 

Colostrum. — .A few days elapse after the birth of the 
calf before the milk is fit for use. The product obtained 
is called "colostrum," and is especially suited to the 
needs of the young offspring. It differs from milk in 
containing a much larger amount of solid matter and 
ash, and in showing but little sugar. 

Milk Drawn at Different Times also differs in com- 
position, though the influence of time of milking is not 
the same for all animals. In some cases the morning's 
milk will be greater in quantity and poorer in quality than 
the evening's milk, while in others the reverse is the 
case; hence the variation in the milk of a herd is not 
so noticeable as that from individual cows. 

It is also a matter of common observation that the milk 
first drawn is poorer, particularly in fat, than the " strip- 
pings," or that last drawn; frequently the '^ strippings," 
or last pint drawn, contain six to eight times more fat 
than the first pint, while the other constituents, albumi- 
noids and sugar, are more evenly distributed ; this vari- 
ation in composition, in connection with the fact that 
the fat globules are larger in the " strippings " than in 



THE PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 187 

the milk first drawn, indicates that the fat rises in the 
udder. 

The Influence of Pood is perhaps greater than any 
other factor in determining the profit that may be de- 
rived from the dairy ; its influence is felt, not only on the 
quantity of milk produced, but on the quality of the 
products derived from it. A specific breed possesses cer- 
tain capabilities, the value of which are dependent in 
large measure upon the food that is supplied. 

By proper feeding is meant, not only that the animal 
should receive a sufficient amount of nutriment in the 
right proportions, but also that the materials furnishing 
the nutrients should be clean and wholesome, and free 
from any substance that may injure the quality of the 
product. 

Pasture and Hay. — Pastures and green foods, for 
instance, composed only of the true grasses* and clovers, 
are nutritious and wholesome, and can have no injurious 
effect upon the health of the animal or the quality of 
the product; while those which include a large number 
of weeds may not only be dangerous to the health of 
the animal, but may cause an undesirable flavor in the 
milk, and an inferior quality of the butter or cheese pro- 
duced from it. Hay free from weeds, if well made and 
the desirable properties retained, is an excellent food ; but 
if improperly cured and the characteristic odor destroyed, 
and so badly stored as to cause it to heat and mould, its 
feeding will result in a much poorer quality of product. 

Coarse Products and Concentrated Feeds The 

coarse products, straw and stalks, and the concentrated 
feeds composed of the cereal grains and refuse mill pro- 



188 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

ducts, if clean and sweet, affect the quality of milk 
only by virtue of the variations in their feeding value, 
though the character of the products made from it may 
be influenced to some extent. The feeding of cotton- 
seed, for instance, has a tendency to increase the pro- 
portion of solid fat, while gluten meal, on the other 
hand, is said to increase the proportion of liquid fat. 

Useful Succulent Foods, as turnips, swedes, mangel- 
wurzels, cabbage, etc., also affect the flavor of the milk; 
and, in order to prevent as far as possible their unfa- 
vorable effect, they should be fed immediately after 
milking. Wet brewers' grains, distillery refuse, and en- 
silage in an advanced state of fermentation, also exert 
an unfavorable influence on the quality of the milk. 

Changes in Milk. — It is well known that milk from 
healthy cows, even under good practical conditions of 
preservation,- will remain sweet but a short time; though, 
if it could be drawn and placed so that no air could 
come in contact with it, it would always remain sweet. 
The changes in milk, or tendency to sour, are caused by 
the entrance into it of ferments, or minute organisms 
called " bacteria ; " and milk possesses in a marked de- 
gree those properties which, given a suitable temperature, 
favor their rapid development. 

Good and Bad Ferments. — These bacteria are of 
two classes, one of which includes those called " friendly," 
which are necessary or helpful in the making of butter 
or cheese, and the other, " unfriendly," or those which 
introduce bad qualities into the milk and its products. 
The ferments that injuriously affect milk are more abun- 
dant in warm weather, in closed buildings, and around 



THE PRODUCTS OF THE HAIRY. 189 

decaying matter, than in cold weather and in the open 
air, because warmth, impure air, and unclean conditions 
are favorable for their growth, while a low temperature, 
sunshine, and pure air prevent their rapid development. 

Cleanliness is Essential to Good Milk Supply. — 
Milk from healthy cows, that are fed clean, wholesome 
food and pure water, and are kept in clean stables, Avhen 
drawn by clean milkers, and then rapidly cooled and 
kept in a clean place, will keep longer than that drawn 
from animals that are poorly fed, improperly housed, and 
badly cleaned ; since in the one case the conditions are 
such as to reduce the influence of the " unfriendly " bac- 
teria, while in the other the conditions are favorable for 
their development and introduction into the milk. 

It is not only essential that the animal, the stables, 
the milker, the utensils, the dairy-room or cellar, should 
be kept as clean as possible, but that all manner of de- 
caying matter about the farm should be prevented or 
removed. Fermenting foods, bedding consisting of decay- 
ing straw or hay, muddy and filthy water in the pastures, 
are frequently the cause of bad taints in milk. These 
not only destroy in large measure its good qualities, but 
render its use dangerous. Furthermore, no milk from 
diseased animals, or that which has been exposed to the 
germs of infectious human diseases that may be carried 
and introduced by milkers, or diseases which can be in- 
troduced through the animals themselves by means of 
contaminated water supply, should ever be offered for 
sale direct as milk, or indirectly as butter or cheese. 

Cream consists of the fat globules mixed with more 
or less of the other constituents of milk. Its richness 



190 FIRST PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTUIiE. 

in fat depends ui^on the quality of the milk from which 
it is derived, and upon the method used in creaming. It 
is, therefore, not a product of uniform composition; in 
fact, it is much less uniform than milk, its content of 
fat — the chief constituent of value in it — ranging from 
as low as ten per cent to as high as forty per cent. 

Its purchase or sale, either as food for families or for 
the production of butter at creameries, should be based on 
the actual content of fat rather than its volume or measure. 

Systems of Creaming. — These are divided into two 
classes, — first, the setting systems, in which the cream 
rises under natural conditions ; and second, centrifugal 
systems, in which mechanical force is used. 

The simplest setting system is the open-air shallow 
pan; it is also the most common, but it does not give 
the best results. In order to get the largest quantity of 
cream by this method, the milk has to stand too long, 
which endangers the quality of the butter; besides, the 
long exposure to the air induces rapid changes and sour- 
ing, which render the skim-milk less valuable as food for 
animals, and make it unfit for human food. The deep- 
setting systems permit of a better regulation of the tem- 
perature, and of a more perfect protection from the air; 
while the rapidity and completeness of the creaming is 
not decreased. 

Mechanical separation is more economical of space, 
time, and labor, and a larger percentage of the fat of 
the milk is obtained by it than by any other method ; 
besides, perfectly fresh cream and skim-milk can be im- 
mediately obtained by this system. This system of cream- 
ing has taken the place of the others to a great extent 



THE PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 191 

in large dairies and creameries, though the cost of the 
separator and the power required to run it have pre- 
vented its rapid adoption in the small home dairy. 

The various large machines have now reached a remark- 
able degree of perfection ; and it is only a question of time 
before those adapted for the small dairy, both in point 
of cost and power, will be available. 

Butter. — Butter consists of the fat globules of milk 
gathered into a solid form. Like other products of the 
dairy, it is subject to wide variations in composition and 
quality. Good butter should contain at least eighty-five 
per cent of pure butter fat, not more than twelve per cent 
of moisture, and less than one per cent of casein. The 
content of ash, or mineral salts, depends upon methods 
of salting, though it should not exceed one and one-half 
per cent. 

The yield of butter from a given quantity of milk de- 
pends chiefly upon the amount of fat in the milk, and the 
composition of the product secured. If milk is bought 
for butter-making, it should be paid for on the basis of 
content of butter fat, rather than by weight or volume. 
The yield of butter from a given quantity of fat in differ- 
ent lots of milk also varies slightly, since the fat in all 
milks cannot be uniformly recovered as butter even under 
uniform methods of treatment. This is believed to be 
largely due to differences in the size of the fat globules ; 
the larger the globule the greater the proportion of 
fat recovered; in practice, however, this point is largely 
disregarded. 

The properties of butter which determine its edible 
quality and appearance are flavor, keeping quality, solid- 



192 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGlilCULTUBF. 

ity, texture, and color. These are the result in large 
measure of the management of the milk and cream, and 
the method of making the butter. Good flavor, for in- 
stance, belongs to some extent to certain of the fats them- 
selves, though largely to the changes which occur in the 
ripening of the cream, a process of fermentation which 
can be controlled by the butter-maker. In fact, certain 
ferments have been discovered and isolated, which, if 
added to the cream, will give to the butter the delicate 
flavor so pleasing to the palate. This method of securing 
uniform quality in respect to flavor is likely to become 
an important feature of butter-making. 

Bad Flavors or Odors may be due to certain foods, as 
cabbage, poor hay, fermenting brewers' grains, and ensi- 
lage, and to such weeds as garlic. Butter will also absorb 
the odors of foods, decaying substances, etc., with which 
it comes in immediate contact; hence products possessing 
distinct flavors should not be stored in the dairy room. 

The Keeping Quality of butter is governed to a great 
degree by the method of making. If the cream is properly 
ripened and churned, the butter well worked and evenly 
salted, it will, even under ordinary conditions, retain its 
original quality for a long time ; while if the processes 
have been carelessly conducted, the buttermilk not com- 
pletely removed, and unevenly salted, it will soon lose its 
good qualities ; the casein which has been left in it will 
decay, and cause it to become rancid. 

Texture. — When butter is solid, and shows a decided 
granular structure rather than a greasy appearance when 
broken, it is said to possess good texture. This is gov- 
erned by the character of the milk and method of manage- 



TUE PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 193 

ment. Milk which contains large fat globules, as that from 
the Jersey and Guernsey, will, under the same methods of 
making, produce butter of a better texture than that from 
the milk containing small fat globules. Too much han- 
dling, and too high a temperature in making the butter, 
also injure the texture. 

The Natural Color of butter is due to a substance in 
milk called "lacto-chrome." The butter from the distinct 
butter breeds or their " grades " possesses a better natural 
color as a rule than that from the milk breeds. 

Sweet Cream Butter is used to a limited extent in 
certain localities ; it is made from unripened cream, and is 
preferred by certain customers because only the original 
flavors are retained. 

Cheese. — Cheese consists of the casein of the milk 
with more or less of its butter fat ; it is of two distinct 
kinds; viz., whole-milk cheese, which contains all the fat 
of the milk that can be recovered in the process of manu- 
facture, and skim-milk cheese, where the fat in the 
milk has been partially removed before it is made into 
cheese. • 

Manufacture of Cheese. — The principles involved in 
the manufacture of cheese are practically the same for 
the many different varieties. The various operations in- 
clude the coagulation of the casein, removal of the whey, 
salting, pressing, and ripening. The composition of whole- 
milk cheese, as well as its edible qualities, depends upon 
the composition of the milk used and the methods of 
manufacture. Eecent experiments have shown that, other 
things being equal, the fat in milk measures the amount 
and quality of cheese that may be made from it. The 



19^ FIRST PIUNCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

best cheese is produced, and the least loss occurs in manu- 
facture, from milk rich in fat. 

Good Cheese should possess richness, that is, good 
proportions of fat and casein, good flavor, keeping quali- 
ties, and firmness of texture ; and can only be secured 
by very careful attention to the details in the numerous 
operations required in its manufacture. 

Cheese as Food. — Whole-milk cheese, though vary- 
ing in composition, is a very nutritious food, since it is 
rich in the most valuable nutrients, casein and fat. Good 
products contain as high as thirty-five to forty per cent 
of fat, twenty-five to thirty per cent of casein, and as low 
as twenty per cent of water. Skim-milk cheese, though 
an excellent food, is less valuable ; it contains more water 
and much less fat. 

Skim-milk. — This consists of the remainder of the 
milk after the removal of the fat, and varies in composi- 
tion according to the completeness of skimming, or separa- 
tion of fat ; as a rule, separator skim-milk is poorer in fat 
than that derived by other methods. Skim-milk shows 
less total solid matter and different proportion of the 
food constituents than whole milk ; fat is the most vari- 
able constituent. It ranges from two-tenths of one per 
cent to one per cent; casein and ash are slightly less, 
while milk sugar is somewhat greater in amount than in 
whole milk. An average composition would probably 
show : — 



Water 90.00 per cent. 

Fat 0.80 

Casein and Albumen 3.G0 " 

Sugar 4.00 

Ash ~ 0.70 



THE PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 195 

As a Food, skim-milk, though dikite, is, when sweet, 
a wholesome and nutritious human food. It is also, both 
in its sweet and sour state, an excellent animal food, 
and is especially adapted for pigs and calves ; though, 
because of its highly nitrogenous character and narrow 
nutritive ratio, it should be used in connection with those 
of a fatty or carbonaceous nature, which will widen the 
ratio. Skim-milk and flaxseed meal — which is rich in 
fat — make an excellent and well proportioned ration 
for young calves; while skim-milk and wheat middlings, 
or other products showing a high content of digestible 
carbohydrates and fat, make a good and economical ra- 
tion for pigs. 

Buttermilk contains the casein and sugar retained in 
the cream from which butter is made, and such propor- 
tions of the fat as are not recovered. It differs but little 
in composition from skim-milk, and has about the same 
feeding value, though usually containing more fat and 
casein, and less sugar ; it is also liable to considerable vari- 
ation, owing to differences in methods of obtaining the 
cream and of churning. 

Whey is the residue from the manufacture of cheese. 
It is more dilute than the other refuse products, and 
as a food is chiefly valuable for its content of sugar. 

Dairying. — The success and profit of the dairy de- 
pend upon a number of conditions, which should be 
carefully considered. The situation in reference to home 
supplies, which include water, and natural fertility of 
soil, access to good wholesome foods, location and char- 
acter of markets, and the relative profitableness of dairy- 
ing and other lines of farming, should all be carefully 
studied before entering upon the business. 



196 FIEST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

The Selection of a Specialty is also important ; for, 
while a series of j^rodiicts may be made, the adoption of 
a single line usually results in a greater concentration 
of energy, and hence a better product. This involves 
a knowledge of the sj)ecial characteristics of the differ- 
ent breeds, and the principles that govern in their selec- 
tion, management, care, and improvement. 

Testing the Animals. — The profits of the dairy are 
also governed in large measure by the yield and quality 
of the milk ; hence careful records should be kept of 
individual animals in these respects. It has already been 
shown that the yield and quality of the dairy products, 
cream, butter, and cheese, are measured by the content 
of butter-fat in the milk ; it is, therefore, of the great- 
est importance that the content of fat in the milk of 
each animal should be tested. This may be accurately 
and rapidly accomplished by what are known as semi- 
chemical methods ; of these the " Babcock Test," de- 
vised by Dr. S. M. Babcock of the Wisconsin Experiment 
Station, furnishes accurate results, and is so simple in 
operation as to be readily performed by any careful 
dairyman. 

A careful study of the animals in these respects teaches 
the dairyman the actual value of each, hence only those 
which are profitable need be kept. 

Dairy Products and Soil Fertility. — The relation 
of the sale of the various dairy products to soil ex- 
haustion is frequently disregarded in the selection of 
specific lines, though it is a matter of some importance. 
If whole milk is sold, there is removed from the farm 
for each ton sold an average of twelve pounds of nitro- 



THE PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 197 

gen, four and a half pounds of phosphoric acid, and 
three and a half pounds of potash. If it is manufac- 
tured into cheese, the mineral salts are largely retained 
in the whey, and nitrogen only is removed. If it is 
manufactured into cream or butter, and the skim-milk 
and buttermilk — foods of considerable value — are re- 
tained, practically no loss in fertility results. The 
exact value of these relations will "differ with different 
conditions, such as relative prices received for the vari- 
ous products, the cost of actual fertilizing constituents, 
and the usefulness of the foods, skim-milk and butter- 
milk; hence it can, of course, be determined only by the 
individual dairyman. 

The Purchase of Poods and Methods of Feeding 
are also valuable factors. The feeds should not only be 
well adapted in themselves, but should be so adjusted 
to others in the ration as to result in the greatest pos- 
sible product for the least outlay. The care of the an- 
imals should also be kindly, regular, and punctual, and 
all the processes of the dairy carried out in such a 
manner as to guarantee the highest quality of product. 



APPENDIX. 



CONTAINING TABLES 
showing the 

Composition of Fertilizing Materials, Farm Manures, 
Fodders, Feeds; the Coefficients of Digestibility of 
Various Feeding Stuffs; Fuel Value of Food ; Feed- 
ing Standards for Different Animals and Different 
Purposes of Feeding; and the Fertilizer Constituents 
Contained in the Chief Farm Crops and Concentrated 
Feeds. 



200 



APPENDIX. 



COMPOSITION OF FEETILIZING MATERIALS. 
Table I. Nitrogenous Materials. 





Pounds Per Hundred. 




Nitrogen. 


Total 
Phos. Acid. 


Potash. 


Nitrate of Soda 


151 to 16 
19 to20J 
12 to 14 

10 toll 

11 to 121 
5 to 6 
7 to 9 
G^to 7^ 
5 to 6 


3 to 5 

I to 2 
11 to 14 

6 to 8 

II to 2 
1 to 11 




Sulpliate of Ammonia 

Dried Blood (high grade) .... 

Dried Blood (low grade) 

Concentrated Tankage 

Tankage (bone) 

Dried Fish Scrap 

Cottonseed Meal 

Castor Pomace 


2 to 3 
1 to 1^ 



Table II. Phosphatio Materials. 



Pounds Per Hundred. 



Nitrogen. 



Phosphoric Acid. 



Total. 



Available. Insoluble 



S. C. Hock Phosphate , . . 
S. C. Rock Superphosphate, 
Fla. Land Rock Phosphate . 
Fla. Pebble Phosphate . . 
Fla. Superphosphate . . . 

Bone-black 

Bone-black Superphosphate, 

Ground Bone 

Steamed Bone 

Bone (dissolved) 



2^ to 4^ 
Ih to 2^ 
2 to 3 



26 to 28 
13 to 16 
33 to 35 
26 to 32 

16 to 20 
32 to 36 

17 to 18 
20 to 25 
22 to 29 
15 to 17 



12 to 15 



14 to 16 

15 to 17 

5 to 8 

6 to 9 
13 to 15 



26 to 28 
1 to 3 

33 to 35 

26 to 32 
1 to 4 

32 to 36 

1 to 2 

15 to 17 

16 to 20 

2 to 3 



APPENDIX. 



201 



Table III. Potassic Materials. 





Pounds Per Hundred. 




Actual 
Potash. 


Total 
Phos. 
Acid. 


Lime. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Chlorine. 


Muriate of Potash .... 
Sulpli. of Potash (high grade) 
Double Sulph. of Potash and 

Magnesia 

Kainit 

Sylvinit 

Cottonseed Hull Ashes . . 
Wood Ashes (unleached) . . 
Wood Ashes (leached) . . . 
Tobacco Stems 


50 

48 to 52 

26 to 30 
12 to 12^ 
16 to 20 
20 to 30 
2 to 8 
1 to 2 
5 to 8 


• • • 

7 to 9 
lto2 
1 tol^ 


10 

30 to 35 
35 to 40 
3.5 


* 
2 to 3 


45 to 48 

li to 2^ 
30 to 32 
42 to 46 



Table IV. Average Composition of Farm Manures. 



Farm Manures. 



Pounds Per Hundred. 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Total 
Phos. 
Acid. 



Potash. 



Lime. 



Cow Manure (fresh) . 
Horse Manure (fresh) 
Sheep Manure (fresh) 
Hog Manure (fresh) . 
Hen Dung (fresh) . . 
Mixed Stable Manure 



0.34 
0.58 
0.83 
0.45 
1.63 
0.50 



0.16 
0.28 
0.23 
0.19 
1.54 
0.26 



0.40 
0.53 
0.G7 
O.GO 
0.85 
0.63 



0.31 
0.21 
0.33 
0.08 
0.24 
0.70 



202 APPENDIX. 

Table V. Average Composition of Fodders and Feeds. 



Kind of Feeding Stuff. 



Pounds per Hundred. 



GREEN FODDERS AND ENSILAGE. 

Pasture Grass 

Orchard Grass (in bloom) 

Timothy 

Corn (Maize) Fodder — 

Flint varieties 

Dent varieties 

Sweet varieties 

Ked Clover 

Alsike Clover (in bloom) 

Alfalfa (Lucerne) 

Crimson Clover (just heading) . . . 
Crimson Clover (full bloom) .... 

Cow Pea 

Sorghum (whole plant) 

Rye Fodder 

Oat Fodder 

Corn (Maize) Ensilage 

RAY AND DRV COARSE FODDERS. 

Corn (Maize) Fodder 

Corn (Maize) Stalks 

Hay, Mixed Meadow Grasses . . . 

Timothy Hay 

Hay, Hungarian Grass 

lied Clover Hay 

Alsike Clover Hay 

Alfalfa (Lucerne) Hay 

Wheat Straw 

Kye Straw 

Oat Straw 



ROOTS AND TUBERS. 

Mangels 

Rutabagas 

Turnips 

Red Beets 

Sugar Beets 

Carrots 

Potatoes 

Sweet Potatoes 



70.3 
73.0 
61.6 

79.8 
79.0 
79.1 
70.8 
74.8 
71.8 
89.2 
81.5 
83.5 
79.4 
70.6 
02.2 
79.1 

42.2 
10.2 
16.0 
13.6 
7.7 
15.3 
9.7 
8.4 
9.0 
7.1 
9.2 

90.9 
88.6 
90.5 
88.5 
86.5 
88.6 
79.1 
72.4 



1.2 
0.9 
1.2 



0.7 
0.5 
0.5 
1.1 
0.9 
1.0 
0.4 
0.6 
0.4 
0.5 
0.6 
1.4 
0.8 

1.6 
1.2 
2.1 
2.5 
2.1 
3.3 
2.9 
2.7 
1.3 
1.2 
2.3 

0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.1 
0.1 
0.4 
0.1 
0.3 



4.3 
5.6 
4.4 
8.1 
7.4 
7.4 
1.8 
5.1 
4.7 
6.1 
11.6 
11.2 
6.0 

14.3 

28.2 
29.9 
28.9 
27.7 
24.8 
25.6 
25.0 
38.1 
38.9 
37.0 

0.9 
1.3 
1.2 
0.9 
0.9 
1.3 
0.4 
0.9 



4.7 
2.6 
3.1 

2.0 
1.7 
1.9 
4.4 
3.9 
4.8 
2.5 
3J2 
2.5 
1.3 
2.6 
3.4 
1.7 

4.5 

4.6 

6.4 

5.9 

7.5 

12.3 

12.8 

14.3 

3.4 

3.0 

4.0 

1.4 
1.2 
1.1 
1.5 
1.8 
1.1 
2.1 
1.1 



2.8 
2.0 
2.1 

1.1 
1.2 
1.3 
2.1 
2.0 
2.7 
1.2 
1.5 
1.7 
1.1 
1.8 
2.5 
1.4 

2.7 
5.2 
4.6 
4.4 
6.0 
6.2 
8.3 
7.4 
4.2 
3.2 
5.1 

1.1 
1.2 
0.8 
1.0 
0.9 
1.0 
0.9 
1.3 



APPENDIX. 



203 



Table V. Average Composition of Fodders and Feeds. 

( Concluded. ) 



Kind of Feeding Stuff. 



GRAINS AND OTHEK SEEDS. 

Corn (Maize) — 

Flint 

Dent 

Sweet 

Wlieat (winter varieties) .... 

Kye 

Oats 

Buckwheat 



MILL PRODUCTS AND REFUSE FEEDS, 

Corn (Maize) Meal 

Corn and Cob Meal 

Corn Bran 

Wheat Bran (all analyses) 

Wheat Shorts 

Wheat Middlings 

Wheat Screenuigs 

Ilye Bran 

Rye Shorts 

Buckwheat Bran 

Buckwheat Middlings 

Rice Bran 

Malt Sprouts 

Brewers' Grains 

Brewers' Grains, dried 

Gluten Meal 

Chicago Gluten Meal 

Buffalo Gluten Feed 

Grano Gluten Feed 

Cerealine Feed 

Hominy Chop 

Corn Oil Meal . . 

Cottonseed Meal 

Linseed Meal (old process) 

Linseed Meal (new process) 



Pounds per Hundred. 



11.3 
10.6 
8.8 
10.5 
11.6 
11.0 
12.6 



14.4 
15.1 

8.5 
11.7 
11.7 
11.8 
11.6 
11.6 

9.3 
12.9 
12.8 

9.7 

9.3 
75.7 



8.0 
9.1 
8.3 
6.0 
9.6 
8.7 
9.0 
8.0 
9.2 
10.1 



5.0 
5.0 
8.1 
2.1 
1.7 
5.0 
2.2 

3.8 
3.5 
8.1 
4.1 
4.5 
4.0 
3.0 



5.9 

7.5 

8.8 

1.9 

1.7 

Q.Q 

14.6 

5.5 

12.7 

14.2 

8.1 

9.7 

13.5 

12.6 

7.7 

3.0 



1.9 
6.6 

11.5 
8.9 
7.0 
4.4 
4.9 
3.4 
5.1 

13.4 
3.8 
9.5 

10.6 
3.7 

13.1 
1.6 
1.3 
6.7 

11.4 
6.8 
3.4 
6.7 
5.6 
8.4 
9.5 



10.5 
10.3 
11.6 
11.8 
10.6 
11.8 
10.0 

9.3 
8.5 
11.4 
15.4 
15.1 
15.7 
12.5 
14.4 
18.0 
22.1 
28.0 
12.1 
25.9 
5.9 
22.7 
33.0 
33.7 
21.5 
31.0 
10.6 
11.3 
24.8 
42.4 
33.5 
33.2 





Of 


.^3 
< 

1 

6 


2 

o 

1 


1.4 


70.1 


1.5 


70.4 


1.9 


66.8 


1.8 


72.0 


1.9 


72.5 


3.0 


59.7 


2.0 


64.5 


1.4 


69.2 


1.5 


64.8 


0.8 


59.7 


5.9 


54.0 


4.4 


57.3 


3.2 


60.9 


2.9 


65.1 


3.5 


64.3 


4.9 


59.9 


4.3 


41.4 


5.0 


42.9 


10.0 


49.9 


6.5 


45.8 


0.9 


12.1 


3.8 


45.1 


1.3 


41.5 


0.9 


49.5 


0.9 


49.9 


2.7 


34.7 


2.6 


62.3 


2.9 


64.0 


2.4 


43.6 


7.2 


24.2 



204 



APPENDIX. 



Table VI. Coefficients of Digestibility of American Feed 

Stuffs. 

EXPERIMENTS WITH RUMINANTS. 



Kind of Foddeb. 



,0 m 









HAY AND DRY COAKSE FODDERS. 

Timothy Hay 

Hay of Mixed Grasses (ricli in protein) . . 

Hay of Orcliard Grass 

Hay of Red Top 

Dried Pasture Grass 

Oat Straw 



HAY OF LEGUMES. 

Cow-pea Vine Hay (fair quality) . . 
Clover Hay (late bloom, fair quality) 
Clover Hay (good quality) .... 

Crimson Clover Hay 

Alsike Clover 

Alfalfa (Lucerne) 



CORN FODDERS (PARTIALLY AIR DRY). 

Corn stalks (whole plant) 

Corn Stalks (leaves of) 

Corn Fodder 

Sweet Corn Fodder (mature) 

GREEN FODDERS. 

Corn Fodder 

Sweet Corn Fodder (milk) 

Sorghum 

Pasture Grass 

Soiling Rye (formation of head) 

Soiling Clover (late blossom) 

Corn Ensilage 



ROOTS, TUBERS, ETC. 



Potatoes . 
Sugar Beets 
Mangels 



Corn (Maize) Meal 
Corn and Cob Meal 
Pea Meal .... 
Raw Cotton Seed . 
Soja-bean Meal . . 



100 
43 



50 



APPENDIX. 205 

Table VI. Coefficients of Digestibility of American Feed 
Stuffs. — (Jonrlud('.(L 

EXPERIMENTS WITH RUMINANTS. 



Kind of Fodder. 



u 




o 




<D . 










4J 


H 


^ 






'S* 


•a 


s6 


u 


u 


O 


32 


93 


22 


97 




93 


100 


94 


82 


92 


28 


cr> 


24 


7G 


3G 


85 


74 


94 


57 


89 


34 


100 


53 


91 



ii ^^ 



fc- X o 



I'.Y-PRODUCTS. 

Cottonseed Meal ....... 

Chicago Gluten Meal .... 

Gluten Meal 

Buffalo Gluten Feed 

Chicago Maize Feed 

Winter Wheat Bran 

Spring Wheat Bran 

Wheat Middluigs 

New-process Linseed Meal . . 
Old-process Linseed Meal . . . 

Malt Sprouts . '. 

Brewers' Grains Dried .... 



Fuel Value of Food. 

Tlie different classes of food compounds or nutrients in a feed, in 
addition to their special functions of fonning protein and fat, yield 
energy in the foriri of lieat and muscular strength. The fuel or- 
heat value of these nutrients has been measured and is expressed in 
calories. 

A calorie is the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature 
of a pound of water four degrees Fahrenheit. The calories in each 
of the three classes of nutrients are, on the average : — 

CALORIES. 

In one pound of protein 1,800 

In one pound of fats 4,220 

In one pound of carbohydrates 1,8(J0 

The calories in a pound of fats are equal to those in about two and 
one-quarter pounds of protein or carbohydrates. In calculating the 
nutritive ratio of a ration, the fats are multiplied by two and one- 
quarter, in order to convert them into terms of carboliydrates. The 
digestible nutrients in the standard ration for milch cows contain 
29,G00 calories. 



206 



APPENDIX. 



Table VII. Feeding Standards. 

POUNDS PER DAY PER 1,000 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT. 









1 

o 


Digestible 
Nutrients. 


in 
1 








Kind of Animal. 


2 
P4 


1 

1.3 
o 




.2 
"A 


Horse 


, at light work 


21.0 


1.5 


9.5 


0.40 


11.40 




7.0 


« 


average work 




22.5 


1.8 


11.2 


0.60 


13.60 




7.0 


(t 






25.5 
17.5 


2.8 
0.7 


13.4 
8.0 


0.80 
0.15 


17.00 
8.85 




5.5 


Oxen, 


at rest in stall . 




12.0 


<' 


ordinary work 




24.0 


1.6 


11.3 


0.30 


13.20 




7.5 


" 


hard work . 




26.0 


2.4 


13.2 


0.50 


16.10 




6.0 


Oxen, 


fattening, fii'st period .... 


27.0 


2.5 


15.0 


0.50 


18.00 




6.5 


" 


" second period . . . 


26.0 


3.0 


14.8 


0.70 


18.50 




5.5 


<( 


" third period .... 


25.0 


2.7 


14.8 


0.60 


18.10 




6.0 


Milch. Cows c . . . . 


24.0 
20.0 


2.5 
1.2 


12.5 
10.3 


0.40 
0.20 


15.40 
11.70 




5 4 


Sheep, wool-producing (coarser breeds) 


•9.0 


" 


" (finer breeds) . 


22.5 


1.5 


11.4 


0.25 


13.15 




8.0 


(( 


fattening, first period .... 


26.0 


3.0 


15.2 


0.50 


18.70 




5.5 


" 


" second period . . . 
, fattening, first period .... 


25.0 
36.0 


3.5 
5.0 


14.4 


0.60 


18.50 
32.50 




4.5 


Swine 


27 


.5 


5.5 


t( 


" second period . . . 


31.0 


4.0 


24 


.0 


28.00 




6.0 


" 


" third period . . . 


23.5 


2.7 


17 


.5 


20.20 




6.5 




GROWING CATTLE. 














Age, Average live weight 
Months. pel- head. 














2-3 


.... 150 pounds .... 


22.0 


4.0 


13.8 


2.0 


19.8 




4.7 


3-6 


= ... 300 " .... 


23.4 


3.2 


13.5 


1.0 


17.7 




5.0 


6-12 


.... 500 " .... 


24.0 


2.5 


13.5 


0.6 


16.6 




6.0 


12-18 


.... 700 " .... 


24.0 


2.0 


13.0 


0.4 


15.4 




7.0 


18-24 


.... 850 


" • ■ ■ • 


24.0 


1.6 


12.0 


0.3 


13.9 




8.0 



APPENDIX 



207 



Table VIII. Fertilizer Constituents in Fodders and Feeds. 



Kind of Feeding Stuff. 



Pounds per Ton. 



2 


'% 


1 
I 


14.4 


6.8 


11.2 


14.G 


4.6 


19.8 


18.4 


6.6 


28.4 


39.6 


7.2 


42.0 


55.8 


13.9 


44.2 


41.0 


13.4 


44.6 


10.0 


1.8 


14.4 


9.G 


5.8 


15.8 


12.8 


4.4 


24.2 


33.6 


14.0 


8.0 


33.0 


14.0 


8.0 


37.8 


18.6 


12.8 


34.0 


17.0 


11.2 


37.8 


17.8 


13.4 


32.0 


9.0 


4.2 


49.2 


57.8 


32.2 


50.2 


28.2 


14.0 


46.0 


32.0 


19.2 


36.4 


3.8 


1.4 


70.8 


34.0 


22.8 


89.6 


44.2 


23.0 


82.8 


32.6 


37.0 


18.8 


6.2 


1.0 


72.0 


21.8 


1.6 


105.0 


n.2 


1.4 


110.4 


5.8 


1.0 


68.8 


7.6 


1.4 


33.8 


25.0 


13.4 


36.2 


29.8 


14.6 


79.2 


29.0 


3.4 


135.4 


61.6 


38.0 


107.2 


38.6 


28.2 


106.2 


35.6 


27.2 



Corn Fodder 

Corn Stalks 

Timothy Hay 

Red Clover Hay . . . . 
Scarlet Clover Hay . . . 
Alsike Clover Hay . . . 

Wheat Straw 

Rye Straw 

Oat Straw 

Corn Kernels, Flint . . . 
Corn Kernels, Dent . . . 

Winter Wheat 

Hye 

Oats 

Buckwheat 

Wheat Bran 

Wheat Middlings . , . . 

Bye Bran 

Corn Bran 

Buckwheat Bran .... 
Buckwheat Middlings . . 

Malt Sprouts 

BreAvers' Grains .... 
Brewers' Grains, Dried . . 

Gluten Meal 

Chicago Gluten Meal . . . 
Buffalo Gluten Feed . . . 

Cerealine Feed 

Hominy Crop 

Corn Oil Meal 

Cottonseed Meal .... 
Linseed Meal (old process) 
Linseed Meal (new process) 



INDEX. 



Aberdeen Angus cattle, 179. 
Air, food derived from, 10, I'i. 
Albuminoids, 139, 140. 
Ammonia, definition of, 69 ; sulphate 

of, uses and composition, 72. 
Analysis of soils, value of, 31. 
Animal body, ash constituents of, 140 ; 

composition of, 137 ; functions of, 

144 ; nitrogenous constituents of, 

139. 
Animal bone, 80. 
Animal charcoal, 84. 
Animal food, chemical analysis of, 

143 ; classes of, 140. 
Apatite, 87. 
Ash, determination of, in feeds, 144 ; 

of animal body, 140. 
Assimilation, 12. 
Atavism in breeding, 171. 
Atmosphere, action of, on soils, 20; 

as source of food, 12. 
Ayrshire cattle, 178. 
Azotine, 75. 

Bacteria, effect of, on milk, 188. 

Basic slag, 88. 

Beet family, 128. 

Blood, dried, 74. 

Bone, composition of animal, 81 ; 

boiled, 82 ; fineness of, 82 ; raw, 82 ; 

steamed, 82. 
Bone ash, 85. 

Bone black, 84 ; superphosphate, 91. 
Bran, as a feed, 150. 
Breathing, functions of, 145. 
Breed, influence of, on milk, 184 ; value 

of pure, 174. 
Breeding, as a business, 174 ; atavism 

in, 171 ; cross, 173, 175 ; heredity in, 

170 ; in-and-in, 173 ; lineage in, 172 ; 

prepotency in, 172 ; principles of, 

170 5 variation in, 171. 



Brewers' grains, as a feed, 150. 

Buckwheat, as catch crop, 40. 

Butter, color of, 193; composition of, 
191 ; flavor of, 192 ; keeping qual- 
ity of, 192; sweet-cream, 193; tex- 
ture of, 192 ; yield of, 191. 

Butter-fat, composition of, 182. 

Buttermilk, composition of, 195. 

Canadian apatite, 87. 
Capillary attraction, 49. 
Carbohydrates, composition of, 141 ; 

determination of, 144. 
Carrot family, 128. 
Castor pomace, 78. 
Catch crops, 4G. 
Cattle, breeds of, beef, 179; butter, 

177; milk, 177. 
Cellulose, 144. 
Cereals, description of, 129 ; as feeds, 

149. 
Charcoal, animal, 84. 
Cheese, composition of, 193 ; as food, 

194 ; manufacture of, 193. 
Clay, composition and properties of, 24. 
Clay soils, 26. 
Claying of soils, 44. 
Climate, effect of, 37. 
Clovers, description of, 127, 132. 
Colostrum, 1S6. 
Commercial values, 106. 
Composts, 59. 
Cotswold sheep, 180. 
Cottonseed meal, as feed, 152 ; as 

manure, 77. 
Cow manure, 54. 
Cream, composition of, 189. 
Creaming, by centrifugal force, 190; 

by setting, 190. 
Crops, demand for special, 113. 
Crude fibre, determination of, 144. 
Cultivating, 50. 



209 



210 



INDEX. 



Dairy cattle, breeds of, 177. 
Dairying, elements of success in, 195, 

196, 197. 
Diffusion, 13. 
Digestibility of feeds, 154. 
Digestion coefficients, 155 ; function 

of, 145. 
Drainage, function of, 42 ; metliods of, 

43. 
Dried blood, 74. 
Dried fish, 76. 
Dried meat, 75. 

Earth worms, effect on soils of, 22. 

Egg-plants, 127. 

Ensilage, 149. 

Excretion, functions of, 146. 

Fallow, bare, 116; cropping, 116. 
Farming, extensive, 120; intensive, 120. 
Farmyard manure, 53. 
Fat, in animal food, 141; determina- 
tion of, 143. 
Feed, definition of, 146; digestibility 
of, 154 ; gluten, 151 ; manurial value 
of, 166, 168; mill, 150, 166. 
Feeding, economy in, 164, 165 ; fertility 

in, 166 ; objects of, 157. 
Feeding standards, 158 ; use of, 159. 
Felt Avaste, 61. 

Fermentation of manures, 57. 
Ferments, effect of, on milk, 188. 
Fertility of soils, 30; true measure of ,34. 
Fertilizers, advantages of different, 
103; analysis of, 108; complete, 
102; formulas, 108; incomplete, 
102; methods of buying, 102; 
special, 110; use of, 110. 
Fertilizing elements, essential, 52. 
Fertilizing materials, classes of, 68; 

standard, 100. 
Fish, dried, 76. 
Florida phosphate, 86. 
Fodder, definition of, 146; green, 149. 
Food, classes of animal, 140 ; definition 

of, 146. 
Fruit crops, 135; manures for, 136; 
soils adapted to, 130. 

Galloway cattle, 179. 
Gas lime, 65. 
Gelatinoids, 139. 



Germination, 15 ; conditions necessary 
for, 16. 

Gluten feeds, 151. 

Grades, breeding of, 173. 

Grasses, description of, 126, 131. 

Green manuring. See Manures. 

Guanos, pliosphatic, 88. 

Guaranteed composition, 104; inter- 
pretation of, 104. 

Guernsey cattle, 177. 

Gypsum, 66. 

Hair waste, 61. 
Harrowing, 50. 
Hay, cutting of, best time for, 147 ; as 

a feed, 147. 
Heredity in breeding, 170. 
Hereford cattle, 179. 
Holstein-Friesian cattle, 178. 
Hominy meal, as a feed, 152. 
Hoof meal, 77. 
Horn meal, 77. 
Horned Dorset sheep, 180. 
Horny matter in animal body, 139. 
Horse manure, 54. 
Horses, breeds of; American trotting, 

176 ; draft, 175 ; heavy carriage, 

176 ; saddle, 176 ; thorough-bred, 

176. 
Humus, composition and effect of, 25. 

Iron phosphate, 88. 
Irrigation, 43. 

Jersey cattle, 177. 

Kainit, composition of, 97 ; use of, as 
manure, 97. 

Lactation, period of, 186. 

Land plaster, 0,6. 

Leaf, structure of the, 12. 

Leather meal, 61, 77. 

Legumes, 127. 

Leicester sheep, 180. 

Lime, effect of, 24, 47, 51, 64, 67 ; gas, 

65 ; shell, 05 ; slaked, 65. 
Limestone, 05. 
Limestone soils, 27. 
Lincoln slieep, 180. 
Lineage in breeding, 172. 
Linseed meal, as feed, 152. 
Loamy soils, 27. 



INDEX. 



211 



Magnesia, sulphate of potash and, 
99. 

Manure, agricultural value of, 71 ; ar- 
tificial, ^ ; care of, 56 ; commercial 
value of, 106 ; cow, 54 ; definition 
of, 52 ; farmyard, 53 ; application 
of, 58 ; for fruit crops, 136 ; green, 
44, 47 ; crops useful as, 44 ; care in 
use of, 40 ; horse, 54 ; improvement 
of, 57 ; loss in, 55 ; natural, 53 ; ni- 
trogenous, 69, 111 ; phospliatic, 80, 
111 ; pig, 54 ; potassic, 95, 111 ; poul- 
try, 58 ; preservers of, 50 ; sheep, 
54 ; stable, composition of, 54 ; use 
of. 111, 112. 

Market garden crops, 135. 

Marl, use and composition of, 44, 63. 

Meat, dried, 75. 

Melon family, 128. 

Merino sheep, 179. 

Middlings, as feed, 150. 

Milk, changes in, 188 ; composition of, 
182, 183, 185 ; effect of bacteria on, 
188; influence of food on, 187; 
properties of, 182 ; variations due 
to time of drawing, 180; yield of, 
from ditferent breeds, 185. 

Muck, use of, 59, 60. 

Muriate of potash, 98. 

Nitrate of potash, composition of, 72. 
Nitrate of soda, composition of, 71. 
Nitrates, application of, 79 ; use of, 69. 
Nitrification in soils, 40. 
Nitrogen, forms of, 69 ; as manure, 69, 

78 ; organic, definition of, 69 ; uses 

of, 73, 79. 
Nutritive ratio, 160. 

Oyster shells, 65. 

Palatability of rations, 162. 

Peanut meal, as feed, 153. 

Peat, use of, 59, 60. 

Peaty soils, 27. 

Pedigree, 173. 

Phosphates, animal, 80; composition 
of, 90 ; definition of, 80 ; fixation 
of, 94 ; Florida, 86 ; insolubility of, 
89 ; iron, 88 ; mineral, 85 ; odorless, 
88 ; South Carolina, 86. 

Phosphatic guanos, 88. 



Phosphoric acid, insoluble, 89; in 
soils, 29 ; soluble, 91, 93. 

Pig manure, 54. 

Plant-food, sources of, 10. 

Plant-food constituents, 9, 11 ; deter- 
mination of, 11; functions of, 15; 
supply of, 14. 

Plants, agricultural classification of, 
128 ; air-dry, 8 ; annual, 16 ; bien- 
nial, 16; botanical classification 
of, 126 ; development of, 17 ; dry 
matter of, 8 ; life of, duration of, 
10; parts of, 7; perennial, 17; 
water in, 7. 

Plaster, land, 66 ; New York, 67 ; Nova 
Scotia, 66. 

Plowing, fall, 48 ; methods of, 48 ; sub- 
soil, 48. 

Pony breeds, 176. 

Potash, double sulphate of, and mag- 
nesia, 99 ; muriate of, 98 ; nitrate 
of, 72; in soils, 30; sulphate of, 
98. 

Potash manures, 95 ; forms of, 96. 

Potash salts, appearance of, 99 ; uses 
of, 99. 

Potatoes, sweet, 127 ; white, 127. 

Poultry manure, 58. 

Prepotency in breeding, 172. 

Protein, determination of, 143. 

Quick-lime, 65. 

Rations, balanced, 164 ; examples of 
good, 163 ; preparation of, 161 ; 
wide vs. narrow, 161. 

Respiration, functions of, 145. 

Keversion in breeding, 171. 

Rice bran, as feed, 153. 

Rolling, 50. 

Root crops, 133. 

Roots, structure of, 13 ; functions of, 
13. 

Rotations, advantages of, 114; in 
dairy farms, 120 ; examples of 
good, 117, 118; for hay crops, 120; 
in market gardening, 120. 

Rose family, 128. 

Rye, as catch crop, 46. 

Salt, use of, 67. 
Saltpetre, 72. 



212 



INDEX. 



Sand, composition and properties of, 
23. 

Sandy soils, 26. 

Seed, adulteration of, 123 ; change of, 
124 ; germinating power of, 125 ; 
what is good, 122; impurities in, 
122 ; quality of, 123 ; selection of, 
122 ; testing of, 125. 

Sheep, breeds of, 179. 

Sheep manure, 54. 

Shorthorn cattle, 178. 

Skim-milk, composition of, 194; as a 
food, 195. 

Soils, absorptive properties of, 38 ; al- 
luvial, 23 ; analysis of, 31 ; changes 
in, 37 ; classification of, 23 ; chem- 
ical composition of, 31 ; chemical 
improvement of, 50 ; clay, 26 ; clay- 
ing of, 44 ; constituents of, 33 ; 
definition of, 18 ; drift, 23 ; effect 
of atmosphere on, 20 ; effect of 
lime on, 24, 47, 51, 64, 67; effect 
of growth of plants on, 21 ; effect 
of water ©n, 20 ; exhaustion of, 35 ; 
natural fertility of, 30 ; food ob- 
tained from, 13 ; formation of, 20 ; 
imperfections of, 41 ; improvement 
of, 41, 50; inorganic substances in, 
29 ; limestone, 27 ; loamy, 27 ; mar- 
ling of, 44 ; movement of, 22 ; nitri- 
fication in, 40 ; organic substances 
in, 29; origin of, 18; peaty, 27 ; 
perfect, 27 ; preparation of, 50 ; 
sandy, 26 ; sedentary, 22 ; natural 
strength of, 35 ; texture of, 36 ; 
transported, 23; vegetable, 27; 
weight of, 31. 



South Carolina rock, 86; superphos- 
phate, 91. 

Southdown sheep, 180. 

Stable manure, composition of, 54. 

Stalks, as feed, 148. 

Straw, as feed, 148. 

Subsoil, definition of, 19 ; function of, 
20. 

Sulphate, of ammonia, 72; of potash, 
98 ; of potash and magnesia, 99. 

Superphosphates, composition of, 92 ; 
definition of, 90 ; use of, 95. 

Swine, breeds of, 180. 

Sylvinit, composition of, 97 ; use of, 
as manure, 97. 

Tankage, 75. 

Thomas phosphate meal, 88. 

Tillage, 47. 

Tomatoes, 127. 

Tuber crops, 134 ; as food, 149. 

Turnip family, 127. 

Unit System, 106. 

Values, commercial, 106. 

Vegetable soils, 27. 

"Wastes, utilization of, 61. 

Water, action of, on soils, 20. 

"Wheat plant, composition of, 32. 

Wheat soil, composition of, 32. 

Whey, 195. 

Wolff's feeding standards, 158. 

Wood ashes, use and composition of, 

62. 
Wool waste, 61. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



0D0ESat.3=^DE ^ 



